METODOLOGI

PENYELIDIKAN
KOLEJ UNIV INSANIAH



Slide No.1


Science
Science is a method of inquiry -- Kaedah
mencari jawapan kepada sesuatu masalah
satu cara mempelajari dan mengetahui
tentang perkara di sekeliling kita. Pencarian
ini dilakukan secara sedar, berpanjangan
dan mendalam (kadangkala dengan
menggunakan bantuan statistik)
Science (cont)
It is not so much as what we know but how
we know it.
What is Research (Apa itu
Penyelidikan)

Proses mencari penyelesaian kepada sesuatu
masalah.
Di lakukan melalui kajian menyeluruh yang
merangkumi penganalisaan faktor-faktor
berkaitan.
Penyelidikan Saintifik
Penyelidikan saintifik mempunyai fokus
keatas penyelesaian masalah. Ia
menggunakan pendekatan logikal, tersusun
(organized), dan rigorous untuk
mengenalpasti masalah, mendapatkan data,
menganalisanya, dan membuat kesimpulan
daripadanya.
Purpose of Research (Tujuan
Penyelidikan)
Reporting (Melaporkan)
Description (Menggambarkan)
Explanation (Penjelasan)
Prediction (Ramalan)

Reporting (Melaporkan)
An inquiry conducted to provide an account
or summation of data.
Very little inference or conclusion drawing.
Purist claim this is not research, although
carefully gathered data can have great
value.
Description (Memberi gambaran)
Tries to discover answers to the questions of
who, what, when, where, and sometimes
how.
Researcher attempts to describe or define a
subject, by creating a profile of a group of
problems, people, or events.
May or may not have the potential of
drawing powerful inferences.
Does not answer the question why.
Explanation (Penjelasan)
Goes beyond description by attempting to
explain the reasons for a phenomenon that
the descriptive study only observed.
Researcher uses theories or at least
hypotheses to account for the forces that
cause a certain phenomenon to occur.
Prediction (Ramalan)
Also rooted in theory.
Having able to explain a phenomena,
researcher wants to be able to predict the
occurrence of the phenomena
Type of Research (Jenis
Penyelidikan)
Applied Research (Penyelidikan Gunaan)
Basic Research (Penyelidikan Asas)
Evaluative Research (Penyelidikan
Penilaian)
Action Research (Penyelidikan tindakan)

Applied Research (Penyelidikan
Aplikasi)
Penyelidikan yang bertujuan untuk
menyelesaikan suatu masalah yang sedang
dihadapi.
Has a practical problem-solving emphasis.
Research is conducted to reveal answers to
specific questions related to action,
performance or policy needs.
The intention is to apply results of finding
to solve specific problems.
Contoh
Local Authority MDKP mengenal pasti
cara pembuangan sampah dan sikap
penduduk tentang cara membuang sampah
1 Malaysia policy Apakah rakyat
menerima konsep 1 Malaysia? Apakah
pendapat mereka tentang konsep 1
Malaysia?
Basic Research (Penyelidikan
Asas)
Juga dikenali sebagai penyelidikan tulen.
Penyelidikan yang menghasilkan ilmu baru.
Aims to solve perplexing questions
(problems) of a theoretical nature.
Contoh: penyelidikan tentang bagaimana
virus H1N1 merebak.
Basic Research (Penyelidikan
Asas)
Ciri ciri
1. Untuk memahami sesuatu fenomena,
konsep, kejadian
Untuk meningkatkan maklumat tentang
aspek yang dikaji
Kajian gunaan guna maklumat daripada
kajian asas untuk mulakan penyelidikan
Skop tidak luas
Menerima atau menolak teori atau data
berdasarkan kajian empirikal yang lepas
Memberi gambaran, meramal, menjelaskan
prinsip-prinsip asas tentang sesuatu tingkah laku

Contoh: Faktor-faktor yang berkaitan dengan
kurang keterlibatan ibubapa di luarbandar
dengan aktiviti PIBG sekolah ialah faktor SES dan
personaliti ibubapa. Kajian -- kenalpasti ciri-ciri
SES dan personaliti ibubapa. Hasil kajian ini
digunakan untuk program galakan ibubapa dalam
PIBG di sekolah-sekolah luar bandar




Penyelidikan Penilaian
Mengkaji kesan atau hasil daripada
intervensi atau ujikaji yang dijalankan
Menilai impak sesuatu program intervensi
program
Contoh:
Adakah program Perumahan rakyat
termiskin membantu mengurangkan taraf
kemisikinan di kalangan rakyat di luar
bandar
Penyelidikan tindakan
Menggabungkan kajian asas, gunaan dan
penilaian
Paradigma Penyelidikan
A paradigm reflects a basic set of
philosophical beliefs about the nature of the
world. It provides guidelines and principles
concerning the way research is conducted
within the paradigm. The methods and
techniques used in the research should be in
sympathy with these guidelines and
principles.
Paradigm of Research (cont)
Essentially there is more than one way to make
sense of things around us.
Eg. Road accidents
Engineers, police, administrators, politicians,
psychologist, sociologist, etc, all explain the same
phenomenon quite in different ways.
Underlying these different explanations or
theories, are paradigms i.e the fundamental models
or frames of reference we use to organize
observations and reasoning concerning the
phenomena.
Paradigms of Research
Two dominant paradigms in
sociobehavioral research:
Positivism
Interpretivism

Positivism
Rooted in natural science
Methods of natural science used in social
science research i.e society could be
observed and explained logically and
rationally.
The underlying assumption of positivism is
that there are universal laws governing
human behavior waiting to be discovered.

Positivism (cont)
Movement started by Auguste Comte
(1798-1857)
He coined the term sociologie in 1822
Most importantly, he identified society as a
phenomenon that can be studied
scientifically
Religious belief replaced with scientific
study and objectivity
Ciri-Ciri Penyelidikan Positivist
Rooted in natural science
Menggunakan ukuran objektif dan tepat
Menggunakan data kuantitatif
Kemukakan hipotesis
Pengumpulan data adalah rigorous
Menggunakan kaedah statistik
Hallmark of positivist research is
replicability
Interpretivist Research
Positivist research assume there are
underlying universal laws that govern
human activity waiting to be discovered.
However the study of man and society in
history is different from the study of
inanimate nature because the study of man
and society involve subjective
understanding
Interpretivist Research (cont)
Positivist methodology of the natural science were
found to be inadequate to the understanding of
human phenomena except as natural objects.
Positivism provides no room for the idea that
history and society were human creations and that
this constituted the essence of all social forms.
Human society is bound by history. Therefore the
reality of human existence is socially constructed
and is dynamic and changing according to
different contextual situations.
Interpretivist Research (cont)
In interpretivist research, the researcher has to be
involved in the research in order to understand
human activity.
This requires a wholly different but still well-
grounded method of inquiry to that of the natural
sciences.
The method has to recognize the actions, events
and artifacts from within human life.
Knowledge of persons could only be gained
through the interpretative procedure grounded in
the imaginative recreation of the experiences of
others.
Interpretivist Paradigm
The social world is constructed
It has order and form but these are not
objective
Subjectivity and the identification of shared
realities are the aims of the researcher
Types of Research (Jenis
Penyelidikan)
Quantitative (Kuantitatif)
Qualitative (Kualitatif)
Quantitative Research
(Penyelidikan Kuantitatif)
Kajian yang menggunakan data empirikal
untuk menyelidik sesuatu fenomena.
Study that employs empirical data to
investigate phenomena.
Qualitative Research
(Penyelidikan Kualitatif)
Mengkaji secara teliti dan mendalam suatu
fenomena dengan melihat satu kes atau satu
unit analisis.
In-depth study of phenomena by observing
a particular case or one unit of analysis.
Research that produce descriptive data i.e
peoples own written or spoken words and
observable behavior.
Styles of Thinking (Jenis
Pemikiran)
Knowledge (ilmu) can be derived through
diperolehi melalui):
Empiricism
Rationalism

Styles of Thinking
Rationalism
(formal structural proof)
Empiricism
(observable concrete data)
Existentialism
(informal process)
Idealism
(highly
interpretative
ideas)
. Scientific Method
Postulational .
. Method of Authority
Self-evident truth .
Literary .
Untested opinion .
Empiricism
Observations and propositions derived
through methods of inductive logic.
Empiricist attempt to describe, explain and
make predictions through observation.
Empiricism relies on observable concrete
data.
Scientific Method
One of the preeminent source of knowledge.
Scientific method is heavily empirical i.e
relies on observable, concrete data derived
from experience through methods of
inductive logic including mathematics and
statistics (empiricism).


Tenets of the Scientific Method
Direct observation of the phenomena
Clearly defined variables, methods, and
procedures.
Empirically testable hypotheses.
The ability to rule out rival hypotheses.
The statistical rather than linguistic justification of
conclusions.
The self-correcting process.

Scientific Method (cont)
Scientific method also uses theoretical
means that are based on deductive
reasoning. Reason becomes the primary
source of knowledge and can be deduced
from known laws (rationalism formal
structural proofs).
Rationalism
Reason is the primary source of knowledge.
Differ from empiricism in that rationalist believe
all knowledge can be deduced from known laws or
basic truths of nature because there are underlying
laws that structure the world logically.
Relies on formal structural proofs.
Problems are resolved through formal logic or
mathematics that operates independently of
observation and data collection.
Deductive (Deduktif) Reasoning
The process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion
by logical generalization of a known fact.
Mencapai satu kesimpulan dengan membuat generalisasi
daripada fakta-fakta yang di ketahui.
It is a form of inference that purports to be conclusive i.e
the conclusion must necessarily follow from the reasons
given.
For deduction to be correct it must be both true and valid
i.e the premises (reasons) given for the conclusion must
agree with the real world (be true).
The premise must be arranged in a form such that the
conclusion must necessarily follow from the premise.
Conclusion is derived by generalizing from facts
Deductive Reasoning (cont)
A deduction is valid if it is impossible for
the conclusions to be false if the premises
are true.
Example
Premise 1: Pupils with high IQ are
intelligent.
Premise 2: Asif has a high IQ.
Conclusion: Asif is intelligent
Inductive (Induktif) Reasoning
The process where we observe certain phenomena and on
this basis arrive at conclusions.
Memerhati sesuatu fenomena dan seterusnya membuat
kesimpulan.
In induction we logically establish a general proposition
based on observed facts.
There is no strength of relationship between reasons and
conclusions in induction.
To induce is to draw a conclusion from one or more
particular facts or pieces of evidence.
The conclusion support the facts, and the facts support the
conclusions.
Researcher observes a phenomena and then makes
conclusion.
Inductive Reasoning (cont)
Example.
Push the switch in the lecture room and the light
fails to go on this is a fact.
Why doesnt the light go on?
The bulb has burned out (know from past
experience).
This conclusion is only a hypothesis because it is
only one explanation.
Other reasons: electrical power is down; switch
malfunction, etc.
Inductive Reasoning (cont)
In inductive reasoning, the inductive
conclusion is an inferential jump beyond the
evidence presented.
While one conclusion explains the fact,
other conclusions can explain the fact.
It can be that none of the conclusions
advanced correctly explains the fact.
Combining Induction and
Deduction
Double movement of reflective thought (John
Dewey) is a process in which induction and
deduction is used in research in a sequential
manner.
Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask,
Why is this?
We advance a tentative explanation (hypothesis)
to answer the question.
Deduction is the process by which we test whether
the hypothesis is capable of explaining the fact.
Combining Induction and
Deduction (cont)
Example
Push light switch and find no light.
Why no light?
Infer conclusion (hypothesis) explain the fact that the
bulb burned out.
Use hypothesis to conclude (deduce) the light will not go
on when push the switch know from experience that
burned-out bulb will not light.
Gather info. To see if deduction is true:
A new bulb put in the lamp will result in light when switch
is pushed.
Put new bulb and push switch. Light goes on.

Hypothetico-Deductive Model
Scientific knowledge is obtained through
inductive (empirical approaches) and
through theoretical means (based on
deductive reasoning)
The interpretation of scientific explanation
as a marriage between empirical conception
(empiricism) and the certainties of
deductive logic (rationalism) is known as
the H-D Model.

Hypothetico-Deductive Model
(cont)
According to the H-D model, scientific
theory consisted of a set of statements
connected by logical rules.
From this initial statements, hypothesis are
deduced which could be tested against
empirical observation.
An event is considered to be explained if it
could be shown to be a logical consequence
of the theoretical statements.
Hypothetico-Deductive
Method(cont)
The seven steps involved in the H-D Model of
research:
1. Observation (Pemerhatian)
2. Preliminary Info. Gathering (Kutipan Data
Awal)
3. Theory formulation (Formulasi Theori)
4. Hypothesizing (Penentuan Hipotesis)
5. Data collection (Kutipan Data)
6. Data analysis (Analisis Data)
7. Deduction (Deduksi)

Hallmarks of Scientific Research
(Ciri Utama Penyelidikan
Saintifik)
Purposiveness (Bertujuan)
Rigor
Testability (Boleh Uji)
Replicability (Replikabiliti)
Precision (Ketepatan) and Confidence
(Keyakinan)
Objectivity (Objektiviti)
Generalizability (Menyeluruh)
Parsimony (Hemat)

Purposiveness (Bertujuan)
Research must have a definitive aim or
purpose.
Kajian dimulakan dengan matalamat/tujuan
yang jelas.
Rigor
Research must have a good theoretical base
and sound methodological design.
Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness,
and the degree of exactitude in research
investigation.
Merujuk kepada sifat berhati-hati
(carefulness), teliti (scrupulousness) dan
ketepatan (exactitude) dalam penyelidikan.
Testability (Boleh Uji)
Scientific research must lend itself to testing
logically developed hypotheses to
determine whether or not the data support
the educated conjecture or hypotheses that
were developed after the careful study of a
research problem.
Mengutarakan hipotesis yang boleh diuji
melalui kaedah statistik.

Replicability (Replikability)
The scientific community can place more faith and
credence on the findings and conclusion of a
research if similar findings emerge on the basis of
data collected in other research employing the
same methods.
The results of the test of hypotheses should be
supported again and yet again when the same type
of research is repeated in similar circumstances.
Sesuatu kajian boleh diulangi dalam situasi atau
keadaan lain)
Precision (Ketepatan) and
Confidence (Keyakinan)
Researchers cannot study the universe of events,
objects or people to draw definitive conclusions
on the basis of the results of data analysis.
A sample has to be drawn.
Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to
reality based on the sample.
Confidence refers to the probability (95%) that the
estimation are correct or true and there is only a
5% chance of being wrong.
Objectivity (Objektiviti)
The conclusions drawn from the interpretation of
the data analysed should be objective.
The conclusions must be based on the facts of the
findings derived from the actual data and not on
the researchers subjective or emotional values.
Kesimpulan yang dibuat daripada interpretasi data
mestilah objektif i.e. hanya berdasarkan kepada
fakta yang diperolehi daripada data dan bukan
daripada nilai subjektif dan emosi penyelidik.
Generalizability (Menyeluruh)
Refers to the scope of applicability of the
research findings in one setting to other
settings.
The more generalizable the research, the
greater is its usefulness and value.
Sejauhmana dapatan kajian boleh
diperluaskan kepada populasi.
Parsimony (Hemat)
Simplicity dalam menjelaskan sesuatu
fenomena.
Framework kajian mestilah mudah (simple)
dan hanya mengandungi variable-variable
yang benar-benar mempengaruhi sesuatu
masalah.
Tidak perlu model yang terlalu komplex
dengan variable-variable yang kurang jelas.
Kekangan (Limitation)
Penyelidikan Saintifik Dalam
Pengurusan
Penyelidikan saintifik dalam bidang
pengurusan sukar mendapat keputusan yang
tepat dan error-free.
Ini kerana masalah didalam pengukuran
variable kajian serta mendapatkan
maklumat subjektif mengenai persepsi,
sikap, perasaan, pendapat, emosi, etc.
Problem of how to quantify human behavior
(eg. loyalty, satisfaction etc.)