Insect Development

Adi Basukriadi
Departemen Biologi FMIPA UI
 Embryonic Growth
 Eggs contain cytoplasm, a nucleus
and yolk

 After fertilization the embryo begins

development using the yolk to supply its
nutrients
 Embryo development
 The cells continue to divide, forming germ
layers that will become the various tissues and
organs of the body
Embryogenesis
 Eclosion
 Once fully formed the embryo can either
go into diapause or hatch from the egg
Post Embryonic Development

 Insects must leave the egg – either

chew out, or push their way out –
“hatching” of egg is called eclosion

 Because of hard exoskeleton, insects

grow in stages, with a shedding of skin
or molting between each stage
Perkembangan Serangga :MORFOGENESIS

• Serangga yang baru menetas dari telur berukuran kecil,

tidak bersayap, dan belum matang seksual. Peranan
utamanya adalah makan dan tumbuh.
• Jika terus bertahan hidup, secara periodik serangga akan
mengganti eksoskeletonnya (dikenal sebagai molting).
• Pada banyak spesies, terdapat perubahan fisik ketika
serangga menjadi lebih tua (misalnya tumbuh sayap dan
perkembangan alat genital luar).
• Secara kolektif semua perubahan yang melibatkan
pertumbuhan, molting, dan pendewasaan dikenal sebagai
morfogenesis.
• Secara kolektif semua perubahan yang
melibatkan pertumbuhan, molting, dan
pendewasaan dikenal sebagai morfogenesis.
 Molting and Lifecycles
 Molting is a process for growth and
metamorphosis
 Metamorphosis describes the major
changes of an insect during its lifecycle
 MOLTING
• Proses molting dipicu oleh hormon yang dilepas ketika
pertumbuham serangga mencapai batas fisik eksoskeletonnya.
• Setiap molting mewakili akhir dari satu tahap pertumbuhan
(instar) dan memulai tahap lainnya.
• Pada beberapa spesies serangga, jumlah instar konstan
(biasanya 3 hingga 15), tetapi pada spesies lain bervariasi
tergantung pada suhu, ketersediaan makanan, atau faktor
lingkungan lainnya.
• Molting berhenti ketika serangga menjadi dewasa – energi
untuk pertumbuhan dialihkan untuk produksi telur dan sperma.
 Molting
A process with two major phases:
 Apolysis
 Ecdysis
The major hormones involved:
 Brain hormone (also known as prothoracicotropic hormone)
 Ecdysone
 Eclosion hormone
 Bursicon
These are all produced by neurosecretory cells in the brain
Hormonal regulation of insect development (Layer 1)

Molting is triggered by
a hormone called
ecdsone. It also favors
the development of
adult characteristics.
It’s controlled by a
second hormone, Brain
Hormone (BH).
Hormonal regulation of insect development (Layer 2)
 Molting
The molting process is initiated by hormones – the
brain (Neurosecretory cells )releases brain hormone
or PTTH (prothoracicotropic hormone) into the
blood cavity, which makes it’s way to the prothorax.

Here, the prothoracic gland is stimulated to produce

ecdysone (growth and molting hormone) – which
stimulates growth and molting activities
 The epidermal cells divide and cuticle separates from the
epidermis – called apolysis
 Molting fluid is then produced containing enzymes which
digest 90% of old cuticle
 Meanwhile, new cuticle is formed underneath old cuticle –
top layer is resistant to enzymes of molting fluid
 Molting (cont’d)
 After old cuticle is digested and absorbed, the
remainder is shed – split along weakened lines
and insect wriggles out of it – called ecdysis
 Initiation of these movements in many insects is
caused by eclosion hormone
 The new cuticle is soft and pliable when it first
emerges – it is often “pumped up” by
swallowing air or water, then it hardens and
develops pigment – called sclerotization
Hormonal regulation of insect development (Layer 3)

BH and ecdysone are

balanced by juvenile
hormone (JH). This
hormone promotes the
retention of larval
characteristics.

Synthetic versions of
JH are being used as
pesticides – lots of JH
means not many
adults.

Will it work?
 Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis means “change in form” and
covers the changes from eclosion up to
adulthood
 May be hardly noticeable or very dramatic (eg
silverfish vs butterfly)
 Primarily under control of a hormone called
juvenile hormone (JH)
 JH is produced by an accessory gland to the
brain called the corpora allata
 JH promotes the development of juvenile
characteristics
 Metamorphosis (cont’d)
 When there is a high concentration of JH in the blood,
then an insect will molt into the next juvenile stage
 At a critical time, JH is concentration is reduced, and
the insect molts and changes into pupal form
 JH production is then suspended or at very low
concentration and insect molts to adult form

 A class of insecticides called insect growth regulators

takes advantage of the hormones involved in growth
and development – prevents them from molting or
becoming adults
Models of the Insect Life Cycle
The degree of metamorphosis is not equal across all
insects – generally more advanced forms have
evolved more change from juvenile to adult form
 Juvenile has become more specialized for feeding
and growth
 Adult has become more specialized for reproduction
and dispersal
There are 4 degrees of complexity of metamorphosis:
1) none
2) gradual
3) incomplete
4) complete
 Terms
 Stage refers to an insects developmental status
eg egg stage, larval stage, adult stage
 An instar is the insect between molts eg this is
a third instar larvae
Subclass Apterygota
Ametabola -- paling primitif
 Here cycle goes from egg to juvenile to adult.
 Juvenile looks similar to adult, but smaller and lacks functional
genetalia
 Juvenile and adult live and feed in same habitat
 Unlike other insects molting continues in adults
 Eg. Thysanura, Collembola

Thysanura

Collembola
 Gradual Metamorphosis
Subclass Pterygota
1. Exopterygota : perkembangan sayap eksternal
1.1. Paurometabola

 Cycle goes from egg to nymph to adult

 Nymph resembles adult except lacks fully formed
wings and external genitalia
 Nymphs show beginnings of wings called wing pads
 Adults and nymphs usually share same habitat
 Eg. Grasshoppers, roaches, bugs
Orthoptera
Hemiptera Isoptera
 Ecdysis
 …the physical act of shedding what
remains of the old cuticle

 Brain produces eclosion hormones for

movements related to shedding

 Lastly the brain produces bursicon for

hardening and coloration
Cicada Ecdysis

1 2

3 4
 5

7 8
 Incomplete Metamorphosis
1.2. Hemimetabola
 Cycle goes from egg to naiad to adult
 Immatures may or may not resemble adults
 Naiads have wing pads and may have tracheal gills for breathing
 Immatures and adults live in different habitats (typically water vs air)
 Eg. Mayflies, dragonflies, stoneflies
Odonata Ephemeroptera
 Complete Metamorphosis

2. Endopterygota -- perkembangan sayap internal

Holometabola – paling maju

Cycle goes from egg to larva, to pupa, to adult

 Larvae are very different from adult – different form, lack
compound eyes, reduced antennae, and no sign of wings
 Wing formation begins early, but is internal as imaginal disks
 Pupal stage is almost always inactive – often in protected
habitats – some spin cocoons of silk
 Wing pads appear on pupae
 Considerable breakdown and growth of various tissues
occurs in pupal stage
 Complete Metamorphosis (cont’d)
 Larvae and adults usually live in different habitats or
utilize different resources
 In advanced diptera, pupae occur within the last larval
skin that hardens to form protective puparium
 Eg. Beetles, butterflies and moths, flies, bees and
wasps
Coleoptera Diptera Hymenoptera
Holometabolous Ecdysis
 In holometabola, adult
structures housed in special
structures - imaginal discs
 Daur Hidup Serangga
• Daur hidup adalah waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk
menyelesaikan perkembangan melalui semua tahap kehidupan
dari telur hingga ke telur.
• Setiap spesies mempunyai daur hidup dan waktu untuk
menyelesaikan perkembangan yang berbeda.
- Univoltine : spesies menyelesaikan satu generasi/tahun
- Bivoltine : spesies menyelesaikan dua daur hidup/tahun
- Multivoltine : spesies menyelesaikan beberapa daur hidup/tahun

• Daur hidup homodynamic – generasi berlanjut sepanjang tahun

• Daur hidup heterodynamic – satu generasi memasuki tahap quiescent
• Daur hidup perennial : lebih dari satu tahun untuk menyelesaikan daur
hidup
 There are also insects that require more
than one year to complete a generation:
 June Beetles and wireworms can take
2-3 years to complete a generation
 Periodical cicadas take 13 or 17 years

The equation for a pest:

Multivoltine + exotic + no natural enemies + abundant resources =
pest
Penampilan Tipe Larva Deskripsi Contoh

Eruciform Badan silindris dengan kaki Ngengat dan kupu-kupu

toraks pendek dan 2-10
pasang prolegs abdomen
Campodeiform Tubuh memanjang dan Kumbang lembing (lady
memipih dengan antena yang beetle), lacewing
jelas dan/atau cerci. Kaki
toraks beradaptasi untuk lari.
Scarabaeiform Tubuh robust dan berbentuk June beetle, dung beetle
"C“, terdapat kaki toraks yang
pendek, tidak ada prolegs
abdomen

Elateriform Tubuh panjang, halus, dan Kumbang tepung

silindris dengan eksoskleton
keras dan kaki toraks yang
sangat pendek
Vermiform Tubuh berdaging seperti Lalat rumah
cacing.   Tidak ada kapsul
kepala atau kaki berjalan
Pupa dapat dikelompokkan ke dalam salah satu dari tiga
kelompok yang didasarkan pada penampilan fisik :

Penampilan Tipe Larva Nama Deskripsi Contoh

umum

Obtect Chrysalis Embelan yang berkembang Ngengat

(antena, sayap, kaki, etc.) dan kupu-
menempel ketat tubuh dengan kupu
bungkus seperti cangkang.  
Seringkali ditemukan terbungkus
dalam kokon.
Exarate None Semua embelan yang Kumbang,
berkembang, bebas dan terlihat Lacewings
dari luar.
Coarctate Puparium Tubuh terbungkus di dalam June beetle,
eksoskeleton keras dari larva dung beetle
instar terakhir.
 What are Potential
Applications of Our
Knowledge of the Effect of
Hormones on Molting?
Hormonal Control of Molting
• Jika corpora allata disingkirkan dari larva, larva akan menjadi pupa kecil.
Serangga dewasa yang muncul berukuran mini (A).
• Jika corpora allata dari larva muda diimplantasi ke larva instar akhir,
metamorfosis tidak terjadi. Molting berikutnya menghasilkan larva yang
ekstra besar (C).
 Influence of Juvenile Hormone on
Milkweed Bug Development

Nymph - normal

Grew
Super
mature
nymph
features
but no
molt

Adult - normal
 Effect of Juvenile Hormone on
Mealworm Beetles

Abnormal Normal
specimens Adults
treated with
juvenile hormone (periphery)
(center)
 Mealworm Beetles

Normal Treated Normal

Pupa Pupa Adult