Critical Jurnal Review

KEPEMIMPINAN
JUDUL JURNAL
“COMPETENCIES FOR EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP
IN HIGHER EDUCATION”

Oleh :
HERMAN SETIADI
NIM. 8196122006

DOSEN PENGAMPU :
Prof. DR. SAHAT SIAGIAN, M.Pd

PROGRAM PASCA SARJANA

PROGRAM STUDI TEKNOLOGI PENDIDIKAN
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI MEDAN
2020
 KATA PENGANTAR

Puji syukur saya panjatkan kepada Allah SWT yang telah memberikan
saya kesempatan dalam menyelesaikan tugas ini, sehingga Critical Journal
Review ini dapat diselesaikan tepat pada waktunya.
Terimakasih saya ucapkan kepada Bapak Prof. DR. Sahat Siagian, M.Pd
selaku dosen pengampu Mata Kuliah Kepemimpinan yang telah membimbing
kami.
Penulis berharap agar nantinya tugas ini dapat dipahami bagi siapapun
yang membacanya dan berguna dalam rangka menambah wawasan serta
pengetahuan kita bersama. Sebelumnya penulis memohon maaf apabila
terdapat kesalahan kata-kata yang kurang berkenan. Oleh sebab itu, penulis
berharap adanya kritik, saran dan usulan demi perbaikan di waktu yang akan
datang, mengingat tidak ada sesuatu yang sempurna tanpa adanya saran yang
membangun.
Akhir kata penulis berharap semoga tugas Critical Journal Review ini
bisa memberikan manfaat maupun inspirasi dan menjadi referensi bagi kita
semua.

Medan, April 2020

Penulis

ii
 DAFTAR ISI

Kata Pengantar ....................................................................................................................... i

Daftar Isi..................................................................................................................................... ii

BAB I PENDAHULUAN........................................................................................ 1
A. Rasionalisasi Pentingnya CJR .................................................................. 1
B. Tujuan Penulisan CJR ................................................................................... 1
C. Manfaat CJR ....................................................................................................... 2
D. Identitas Jurnal ............................................................................................... 2

BAB II ANALISA HASIL REVIEW...................................................................... 4

BAB III KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN ................................................................. 6

A. KESIMPULAN .................................................................................................. 6
B. SARAN ................................................................................................................. 6

iii
 BAB I
PENDAHULUAN

A. Rasionalisasi Pentingnya CJR

Critical Journal Review (CJR) merupakan suatu hal yang penting bagi
mahasiswa karena mempermudah dalam membahas inti hasil penelitian yang
telah ada. Terdapat beberapa hal penting sebelum kita mereview jurnal,
seperti menemukan jurnal yang sesuai dengan topik yang diangkat, membaca
keseluruhan dari isi jurnal dan mencoba untuk menuliskan kembali dengan
bahasa sendiri pengertian dari jurnal tersebut. Jurnal memiliki beberapa ciri-
ciri, seperti dibatasi sesuai ketentuan yang ditetapkan oleh organisasi
penerorganisasi yang memuat jurnal ilmiah; memiliki judul dan nama penulis
serta alamat email dan asal organisasi penulis; terdapat abstract yang berisi
ringkasan dari isi jurnal, introduction, metodologi yang dipakai sebelumnya
dan metodologi yang diusulkan, implementasi, kesimpulan dan daftar pustaka.
Langkah penting dalam mereview sebuah jurnal, yaitu mengemukakan
bagian pendahuluan, mengemukakan bagian diskusi, mengemukakan bagian
kesimpulan. Hal-hal yang perlu ditampilkan dalam critical journal review,
yaitu mengungkapkan beberapa landasan teori yang digunakan oleh peneliti
sebagai acuan dalam penelitiannya dan tujuan apa yang ingin dicapai;
mengungkapkan metode yang digunakan, subjek penelitian, teknik
pengumpulan data, alat pengumpul data, dan analisis data yang digunakan jika
menggunakan penelitian kualitatif; mengambil hasil dari penelitian yang telah
dilakukan dengan memberikan deskripsi secara singkat, jelas, dan padat; serta
menyimpulkan isi dari jurnal.

B. Tujuan Penulisan CJR

1. Memahami dan menganalisis kelebihan dan kekurangan dari suatu
jurnal.
2. Mempermudah dalam membahas inti hasil penelitian yang telah ada.
3. Mencari dan mengetahui informasi yang ada dalam suatu jurnal.

1
C. Manfaat CJR
1. Membantu semua kalangan dalam mengetahui inti dari hasil penelitian
yang terdapat dalam suatu jurnal.
2. Menjadi bahan evaluasi dalam pembuatan suatu jurnal di penerbitan
berikutnya

D. Identitas Jurnal
1. Judul : Competencies for effective leadership in higher
education
2. Nama Jurnal : International Journal of Education Management
3. Volume : Vol. 21 No. 5
4. Tahun : 2007
5. Penulis : Marion Spendlove

2
SCREENSHOT JOURNAL

3

ANALISA HASIL REVIEW
ANALISA HASIL
NO
REVIEW
1 Tujuan Penelitian
2 Subjek Penelitian
3 Metode Penelitian
4 Langkah Penelitian
5 Hasil Penelitian
BAB II
PENJELASAN
Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk
menyelidiki peran Pro-Wakil Rektor,
Rektor, atau Pimpinan di sebuah
universitas, dan kompetensi (sikap,
pengetahuan, dan perilaku) yang
diperlukan untuk kepemimpinan yang
efektif dalam pendidikan tinggi
Subjek penelitian dalam jurnal ini adalah
wakil rektor di 10 universitas berbeda
Dalam penelitian ini menggunakan
metodologi penelitian wawancara semi
terstruktur
- Peneliti mengundang 12 Pro-Vice-
Chancellors (PVC) dari universitas-
universitas inggris
- Peneliti menjami kerahasian identitas
responden dan lembaga yang diwakili
- 10 PVC setuju untuk berpartisipasi
dalam penelitian ini : 5 dari
universitas setelah 1992 (mantan
politeknik) dan 5 dari universitas
sebelum 1992; Terdiri dari 2
responden perempuan dan 8 laki-laki.
- Waktu penelitian antara maret dan
mei 2006
- Wawanacara dilaksanakan sebanyak
10 kali tatap muka di lembaga masing-
masing
- Setiap wawancara berdurasi 1 sampai
2 jam dan direkam.
Hasil dari penelitian ini mengungkapkan
bahwa :
1. Tipe kepemimpinan universitas
disamakan dengan kepemimpinan
akademik yang dihormati sebagai
anggota akademik
2. Hanya 1 responden yang berlatar
belakang bisnis yang menganggap
4
 kehidupan akademik dan manajemen
sebagai 2 entitas yang terpisah.
3. Kepemimpinan universitas berbeda
secara mendasar dengan
kepemimpinan bisnis dan
membutuhkan kompetensi dan
pengalaman tertentu
4. Individu dengan pengalaman bisnis
dan industri tidak diragukan lagi
dapat memberikan kontribusi penting
bagi kehidupan akademik, dalam
menjembatani kesenjangan antara
teori dan praktik, dan
memperkenalkan ide-ide baru yang
segar.
6 Kekuatan Penelitian - Tujuan penelitian dijelaskan secara
sistematis
- Langkah-langkah penelitian cukup
jelas dipaparkan.
- Kesimpulan dijelaskan berdasarkan
hasil penelitian secara keseluruhan
- Analisis permasalahan dan ide
terorganisi degan baik. Semua sumber
yang dikutip dan digunakan
memberikan daya dukung argumen
dan bukti pemecahan masalah serta
dilengkapi dengan persamaan dan
perbandingan dengan penelitian yang
serupa sebelumnya
7 Kelemahan Penelitian Masih menggunakan cukup banyak
sumber referensi yang tahun lama
8 Kesimpulan Penelitian ini memberikan identifikasi
dan pengembangan untuk menjadi
pemimpin yang efektif dalam pendidikan
tinggi yaitu menggunakan pendekatan
untuk membangun model kepemimpinan
efektif yang komprehensif dan baru.
9 Sumber Referensi/ Tinjuan pustaka diorganisasi dengan
Jurnal konsisten dan lengkap, memuat
informasi yang terkait topik penelitian.
Sumber referensi yang dipakai dari
beragam tahun dari 1974 sampe 2006

5
 BAB III
KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN

A. Kesimpulan
Dari hasil analisis didapatkan bahwa jurnal ini dapat dijadikan
sebagai rujukan oleh institut atau universitas dalam memilih pemimpin atau
sebagai referensi bagi para pemimpin universitas untuk memiliki kompetensi
yang dibutuhkan agar mampu menjadi pemimpin yang efektif.

B. Saran
Berdasarkan hasil Critical Journal Review yang telah dilakukan maka
dapat diajukan beberapa saran yang dapat diajukan kepada mahasiswa dan
akademisi yang ingin menjadi peneliti selanjutnya :
a. Bagi Mahasiswa
Mahasiswa diharapkan dapat berperan aktif dalam melakukan suatu
penelitian dan pengembangan serta menjadikan review jurnal ini
sebagai referensi untuk menentukan sumber pengetahuan dan
pendekatan ilmiah lain yang akan digunakan.
b. Bagi Peneliti Lainnya
Review jurnal ini masih jauh dari kesempurnaan, maka sebaiknya
dilakukan review lebih lanjut sehingga dapat melengkapi kekurangan
yang terdapat dalam review jurnal ini.

6
 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0951-354X.htm

Competencies for
Competencies for effective effective
leadership in higher education leadership
Marion Spendlove
Aston University, Birmingham, UK 407
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this research is to set out to investigate the role of the Pro-Vice-Chancellor,
Rector, or Principal of a university, and the competencies (attitudes, knowledge and behaviour) that
are needed for effective leadership in higher education.
Design/methodology/approach – Semi-structured interviews were held with Pro-Vice-Chancellors
at ten UK universities representative of the sector.
Findings – Most respondents perceived that academic credibility and experience of university life
were crucial for effective leadership in higher education, and continued with their research and
teaching activities alongside their managerial roles. People skills, including the ability to communicate
and negotiate with others, were also felt to be important. Most universities in the study had no
systematic approach for either identifying or developing leadership skills.
Research limitations/implications – Although this was a relatively small study, the research
highlights the need for a more proactive approach to identifying leadership competencies and
developing leadership throughout universities.
Originality/value – The effective leadership and management of universities is a crucial issue for
policy makers, leaders themselves, and for university staff. The research shows that university
leadership is fundamentally different from leadership in other contexts, and demands additional
competencies. It adds to debates about whether leaders in higher education should be academics, or
professional business administrators.
Keywords Leadership, Universities, Competences, Academic staff
Paper type Research paper

Leading universities may present a unique challenge. Because of the organizational

complexity of the university, its multiple goals and its traditional values, the nature of
leadership in higher education is ambiguous and contested (Petrov, 2006). Universities
have been described as “organized anarchies” with high inertia, unclear technologies
and problematic goals (Cohen and March, 1974). Leading academics has been likened
to “herding cats”, yet the very strength of the university system lies in the independent
thought, creativity and autonomy of the people who work in them. Unilateral top-down
leadership is clearly at odds with the traditional values of academic freedom and
autonomy, democratic participation and the variety of academic interests
(Middlehurst, 1993). What kind of leadership and leadership development are most
effective, when the collegial nature of most universities rests on collective
decision-making?
This paper reports on an empirical scoping study to investigate how we can identify
and develop effective leadership in higher education institutions (HEIs). Studies of International Journal of Educational
Management
Vol. 21 No. 5, 2007
The author would like to acknowledge Professor Graham Hooley and Dr Michael Grojean, Aston pp. 407-417
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
University, and Professor Michael West, Aston Business School for their support and helpful 0951-354X
comments on this study. DOI 10.1108/09513540710760183
IJEM leadership in higher education tend to focus on the role of the Vice-Chancellor (VC),
21,5 President or Rector (for example, Bargh et al., 2000). We therefore have little knowledge
of what skills are needed by those at other levels of leadership. This research
investigates the competencies (attitudes, knowledge and behaviours) that are needed
by a Pro-Vice-Chancellors (PVC), or those who are second-in-command in a UK
university.
408
The role of the PVC
The role of PVC is an ambiguous and unusual organizational one, subject to different
interpretations in different universities (Middlehurst, 1993). Appointees can have either
academic or professional backgrounds, or a combination of both (Whitchurch, 2006).
Middlehurst’s (1993) seminal investigation into leadership in HEIs showed that
although PVCs were often officially part-time, varying between 50 and 75 per cent of a
full load, most regarded the role as virtually full-time in terms of energy and time
commitment. For the rest of the time, they concentrated on keeping up with the
academic activities to which they would return at the end of their tenure.
There appears to be some reluctance to appoint outsiders to leadership roles in
higher education (HE), despite the growing complexity of institutional management.
As Bargh et al. (2000) point out, the result is senior academic leaders who may not be
well suited to line or operational management. Yielder and Codling (2004) claim that in
the traditional university sector, promotion to senior management positions has tended
to be based on academic prowess, largely relating to research capability. Goodall
(2006), in her documentary study, found that the most highly ranked universities had
leaders who are more highly cited. She admits it is not clear whether the universities
are performing well because of these successful academics, or whether this is because
good universities are able to attract successful academics.

Leadership theories
Although there is some overlap between leadership and management, leadership has
been defined as a process of influence leading to the achievement of desired purposes.
This distinguishes it from management, which involves the efficient and effective
maintenance of an organization’s current activities, and the implementation of policies
(Bush and Glover, 2003). Leadership theory contends that the behaviour of individuals
can significantly influence the behaviour of others. Thus it is argued that an effective
leader can influence others to accomplish organizational goals. Leadership has
traditionally been conceptualized as an individual-level skill. The most influential
leadership model was proposed by Burns (1978), who characterized leader behaviour
as either transactional or transformational. In transactional leadership, leaders and
followers exchange needs and services to accomplish independence objectives, or a
form of leadership by bartering, and positive reinforcement is given for good work
(Sergiovanni, 1991). Transformational leadership theory relates to the charisma,
intellectual stimulation and consideration of individual leaders (Bass, 1985).
There is some evidence to show that a charismatic or transformational leadership
style may be more effective in an educational setting (Muijs et al., 2006; Neumann and
Neumann, 1999), or a combination of transformational and transactional dimensions
(Pounder, 1999, 2001). However, models of leadership used in HEIs are largely derived
from business. The direct transfer of business practices to an educational context could
be inappropriate (McIllhatton et al., 1993), and variations within the educational sector Competencies for
itself have been found (Frenkel et al., 2006). effective
leadership
Leadership development theories
Leader development is thought to occur through training in individual skills and
abilities. However, leadership has been shown to be a complex interaction between the 409
designated leader and the social and organizational environment. The underlying
assumption is that more effective leadership occurs through the development of
individual leaders, and that leadership can be added to organizations to improve social
and operational effectiveness. A complementary perspective approaches leadership as
a social process that engages everyone in the community. In this way, each person is
considered a leader, and leadership becomes an emergent property of effective systems
(Day, 2000). Leadership development can be defined as expanding the collective
capacity of organizational members to engage effectively in leadership roles and
processes (McCauley et al., 1998). Rather than focusing on leader development, which
builds the human capital of individuals, leadership development focuses on building
the social capital of organizations (Day, 2000).

The competencies approach

Over the past ten years research in leadership development has moved towards
identifying the leadership competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities and behaviours) of
individuals. Competences are defined as sets of behaviors that are instrumental in the
delivery of desired results or outcomes (Bartram, 2005). Although some are less
amenable to being learned than others (Tubbs and Schultz, 2005), defining particular
competencies can guide strategic human resource management practices, such as
recruitment and succession planning. Competencies offer a useful tool for leadership
development (see, for example, McDaniel, 2002). Competency models are not a
prescription for effective leadership, but represent an attempt to capture the
experience, lessons learned, and knowledge of seasoned leaders to provide a guiding
framework for the benefit of others and the organization (Hollenbeck et al., 2006).
Studies adopting a competencies approach tend to focus on the outcomes of single
leadership development interventions (for example, McDaniel, 2002; Turnbull and
Edwards, 2005). Although researchers have investigated the competencies needed by
Department Chairs (Thompson and Harrison, 2000; Wolverton et al., 2005), we have
little evidence of which particular competencies are needed by the top management
team of a university, or those who are “second-in-command”. The research therefore
addressed the following questions:
(1) What does the role of PVC entail?
(2) What leadership competencies are most effective in the role?
(3) To what extent are the models and theories derived from business adequate in
HEIs?
(4) How do HEIs identify leadership competencies?
(5) What kind of leadership development is most appropriate in HEIs?
IJEM Methodology
21,5 Twelve PVCs from English universities representative of the sector were selected and
invited to take part in the study. Respondents and their institutions were assured of
anonymity in the research. Ten PVCs agreed to participate: five from post-1992
universities (former polytechnics), and five from pre-1992 universities. Two of the
respondents were women. The semi-structured interview questionnaire was tested
410 with three PVCs in my own institution, and the necessary amendments made. Between
March and May 2006, ten individual face-to-face interviews were held with the
respondents at their institutions. Each interview was tape recorded and lasted between
one and a half and two hours. The tapes were transcribed verbatim.

Analysis
The quantitative data derived from the interviews on the role of the PVC, recruitment
practices and desirable competencies was set into tables. The data on competencies
was compared with Bartram’s (2005) validated competency model, which aggregates
112 components under eight domains of work performance, or the “Great Eight”.
Qualitative analysis was carried out to identify the major new unprompted themes
in the interviews. These formed the basis of a coding grid which was then applied to
each transcript to determine the strength and frequency of each theme. Particular
attention was paid to the context of each response, for example, whether the
respondent was employed in a post-1992 or pre-1992 university.

The role of the PVC

Recruitment practices varied. Three respondents had been recruited to the post
through head hunters, three had responded to an advertisement and four had been
selected internally (for example, by the VC). Three respondents stated that there was
no job description when they came into the post. Five posts were permanent. Four of
these were in post-1992 universities, where incumbents were expected to spend 100 per
cent of their time undertaking management activities.
As in Middlehurst’s (1993) study, we found that tasks and duties varied across
institutions although similarities were noted in the activities of the six respondents
who were responsible for research, enterprise and knowledge transfer activities. The
emphasis placed on each of these, and the amount of external work undertaken, tended
to depend on the particular strengths, interest and disinterests of the post holder. This
confirms Hollenbeck et al.’s (2006) observation, that executives often change the
position to better suit their own knowledge, skills and attitudes. Eight respondents said
that their roles had changed since they had taken up the post, confirming the need for
flexibility in university leadership noted in earlier studies (Pounder, 1999; Ramsden,
1988), and six of these reported that they had instigated changes to the role themselves.
Such changes included restructuring and focusing more strongly on research. Two
others felt that changes had been brought about by other factors, such as changing
government priorities, or the appointment of a new VC.
When asked what perspective was needed in the role, in contrast to other roles they
had held, all ten respondents replied that the role was strategic. However, the PVC who
was not an academic did not feel that managing a university was any different to
managing any other complex organization. Boldt (1991) suggests that although there
are strong similarities between business and university strategic management, the
differences make a university’s strategic management much more difficult. For Competencies for
example, the profit motive in business is not present in universities, faculty tenure effective
restricts freedom to reallocate resources, and governance limits the authority of
university administrators. leadership

Research and teaching activities

Most of the PVCs continued their academic activities regardless of whether their 411
contracts were full-time or part-time in the PVC role. Five respondents had fixed-term
contracts for periods ranging from two to five years. Between 20 per cent and 50 per
cent of their time was specified for research or other academic activities. Theoretically,
this allowed them the time to continue their academic work. However, in practice, all
the respondents who were academics found that time was a great constraint on their
research and teaching activities, because of the demands of the management role: As
one respondent said: “It’s the kind of job that tends to be 24/7”. Three of the ten
respondents did not undertake any teaching, and three did not undertake research (two
in pre-1992 universities, one in a post-1992 university).
The assumption in Middlehurst’s (1993) study was that continuing their academic
activities would ease the transition back to a full-time academic post at the end of their
tenure. However, when the respondents were asked what they were going to do next, it
was surprising to find that only two of them planned to return, or had returned, to an
academic career. What was not clear was why the other seven respondents who were
academics would wish to continue research and/or teaching, when it was clearly so
difficult to balance with their responsibilities as PVCs. This is discussed later in the
paper.

Leadership competencies
Two respondents reported that leadership competencies were identified in their
organization. One claimed that these were identified through government-funded
activities around developing staff, the other said these were identified during the
annual performance development review. Seven respondents reported that their
organization did not identify leadership competences; did not identify them very well;
or “not enough”. Further investigations at the tenth institution confirmed that there
was no system in place at the institutional level. Leadership competencies or potential
were identified through “word of mouth” in individual schools. At another institution,
the respondent reported that although leadership training was available: “. . .the
university seems to be extremely selective in sending people forward for that.” Another
described the ad hoc approach at his university:
Some person in the university might come to prominence and people think, oh he’s good, he
seems a sensible person, or she seems a sensible person, might be Heads of Department or
good Faculty Board Deans (pre-1992 university).
However, four of the respondents acted as coaches or mentors themselves, advising
individuals about their careers, involving them in academic boards, developing them
into roles, and actively engaging in succession planning. Coaching and mentoring are
key competencies for leadership. The most common attributes cited for effective
university leadership were openness; honesty; the need to consult others; the ability to
listen, negotiate and persuade; the ability to think broadly/strategically; and to engage
IJEM with people. These are all universal leadership competencies (Bartram, 2005), reflecting
21,5 a transformational leadership style. However, some of the attributes that our
respondents felt were particularly important for the role of PVC were very different to
those required in business, and are not included in existing competency models. These
were: academic credibility; “being seen and respected as an academic”; experience as a
head of department; willingness to be wrong/accept advice/support; discretion; “fellow
412 feeling”; not remote, visible/“get into departments”; ”outgoing, get around the place”.
The following knowledge was cited by the respondents as important: knowledge of
academic life; how the university system works; knowledge of the “academic coal face”;
the differences between a good and a bad university; and an understanding of
academic processes.
In the qualitative analysis, the following themes were identified as the most
frequent across all the interviews.

Credibility (reputation, respect)

Academic credibility was the strongest unprompted theme in seven of the interviews,
and was a sub-theme in one interview. The concept was not mentioned by two
respondents: one of these had given up publication; the other was from a business
background. For the others, academic credibility was cited as a reason for continuing
to publish and teach alongside a management role, and regarded as an important
attribute of effective leadership in HE. One respondent felt it was “. . . more to do
with . . . having people at the centre who are actively involved in academia . . . who are
not just thought of as administrators”. One respondent said that she still did a small
number of lectures a year and felt people respected that because they felt under terrible
pressure themselves. Through continuing their academic activities, the respondents
provided a role model for others. As one explained:
I think you have to maintain your academic credibility. You have to remain an academic. My
feeling is that if I’m asking, if I’m going to people. . .and trying to gee them up and saying
where’s that fourth publication, where’s that grant, I’ve got to show them I’m doing it as well
(pre-1992 university).
Shattock (2003) claims there are serious dangers for institutions when senior
appointments, such as PVCs or deans, are made on a permanent basis, or when the
senior management team comprises permanent appointments only. He suggests that
not only do such individuals become identified irrevocably with certain policies, but
they can too easily lose touch with the academic culture within which they must work.
However, to say that maintaining academic credibility, and keeping in touch with
academic life, were the only reason that our respondents continued in research and
teaching is only telling half of the story. Eight respondents said that they continued to
carry out research because of interest, or enjoyment. They clearly had a strong
personal commitment to their academic activities. Retaining an identity as an
academic, rather than as a manager, was fundamental. Identity underpins
self-awareness, one of the key competencies for leadership.

Experience
This was the strongest theme in five of the interviews and a sub theme in two
interviews. All the respondents had held at least three senior posts in a university,
and/or industry and/or business. However, it was not merely management or
leadership experience, but “the experience of being an academic”, or “experience in a Competencies for
university setting” that were reported as important prerequisites for the post of PVC. effective
For most of the respondents, there had been little leadership or management
training when they were younger. Two respondents were in the age range 40-49, five leadership
were 50-59 and two were over 60 years of age. Although they had received varying
amounts of training, as in Johnson’s (2002) study, their learning had occurred through
engagement in practice and social interaction. The only respondent who had received 413
no formal training at all reported that he had felt unprepared when he first took up the
post of PVC, particularly as none of his previous roles had been strategic in nature.
The youngest respondent, who was not an academic, was highly trained in
leadership and management, with experience in managing complex organizations.
However, although this respondent was highly qualified, and had extensive experience
in senior posts in business, lack of experience of academic life had made the transition
to a university culture a difficult one. In the past, the respondent had found them “very
puzzling and difficult to interact with”, adding: “I realized that we were talking
different languages half of the time”. In the current post, it was hard to “juggle the
relationships between people” and “difficult to get people to work across faculty.” The
autonomous nature of academic work, and what another respondent described as a
“lack of corporate consciousness” were difficult problems to cope with:
The biggest shock is that people don’t have a feeling of corporate identity. They don’t say: “I
work for (institution) . . . ” so there’s no kind of corporate identity. . . Well, working out how on
earth you motivate people to do things. I haven’t been used to that (post-1992 university).
This respondent regarded academic work and management as two separate entities:
“Management, to me, should be totally divorced from your academic status.” Members
of organizations share mental models and implicit theories about how organizations
function (Bass, 1990; Dorfman et al., 2004). When they do not share organizational
beliefs, this can threaten effective leadership.

People skills/human aspects

This was the strongest theme in four interviews, and a sub-theme in three interviews.
Although most of the PVCs did not have line management responsibility for staff,
some of the respondents felt that people skills were particularly important in their
roles. For example, delegation skills were necessary:
I can’t do it all myself. You can’t do that. That’s when other people come in again. The higher
you go, the more you work through people, and the more you need people skills (post-1992
university).
The respondents felt that team building and effective communication were also
important attributes. There was broad agreement that managing academics was not an
easy task. The metaphor of “herding cats” was used by one respondent, who
recognized that that having independently-minded academics was a feature of a good
university:
A bunch of academics behaving like cats means that you’ve probably got a good lot of
academics that are doing all the good things that make the university a strong university.
You want people who are independently minded, you want people who will go off and do
their thing and explore the possibilities (post-1992 university).
IJEM The skills in this category were: negotiation, delegation, motivating, mentoring,
21,5 monitoring, team building and communication. All of these are included in Bartram’s
(2005) competency framework.

Discussion
414 The findings show an anomaly in the way leadership in academe is perceived. For
most of the respondents, leadership equated to academic leadership. It involved being
seen and respected as a member of the academic community. It was a most particular
type of leadership, and one in which outsiders might struggle to understand. Only one
respondent – the one from a business background – perceived academic life and
management as two separate entities. Those who had lived and worked in academe
saw them as inextricably linked. Thus, academic leadership may be fundamentally
different to business leadership, and require particular competencies and experience.
For most respondents, it was crucial to retain their identity as academics, rather
than as senior leaders. Self identity relates to how individuals see themselves in
relation to others (London, 2002). As Henkel (2005) found, the discipline and academic
freedom were in many cases the sources of meaning and self-esteem, and what was
most valued. Individuals with experience of business and industry can undoubtedly
make an important contribution to academic life, in bridging the gap between theory
and practice, and introducing fresh new ideas. However, there are clearly difficulties
when professionals enter academic life and culture at the strategic level without the
credibility, knowledge and experience that their academic colleagues have gained
through their previous roles in academe.

Implications for theory, practice and future research

The results show that although limited informal succession planning was taking place,
the HEIs in our study appear to have no organizational strategy for identifying or
developing leadership skills. Little has changed since a UK government-funded Good
Management Practice project (HEFCE, 2001) showed that 70 per cent of HEIs had no
systematic approach to leadership and management development.
Hollenbeck et al. (2006) suggest an organization might start by identifying 5-10 of
the most important leadership roles in that organization and designing a leadership
model for each role, specifying the mix and interactions of the competencies that are
most likely to lead to success. Table I provides a guiding framework, through
summarizing the competencies that the PVCs in this study felt were the most
important for effective leadership. The emphasis placed on each of these competencies
will vary, depending on situational and contextual factors:
Concerning the ways in which leadership competencies can be developed in HEIs, it
is clear from the research that leadership development interventions need to begin far
earlier in the careers of those who work in academe, so that success is built from below,
rather than from above. As one respondent proposed:
We should make this opportunity available to all academics. Because if you are training them
in these kinds of skills, it’s going to be good if they stay as research academics. They are
going to do their research better if they have these skills. So let’s give everybody the
opportunity (pre-1992 university).
 Competencies for
Attitudes – what good leaders Knowledge – what good leaders Behaviour – what good leaders
are know do effective
Self-aware Knowledge of university life Work to maintain academic
leadership
Flexible Understand how the university credibility/respect
Open system works Act as role models
Honest Understand academic processes Think broadly/strategically 415
Discrete Engage with people
Visible, outgoing Listen to others
Willing to be wrong/accept Consult with others
advice/support Negotiate
Sensitive to the views of others Communicate clearly
Delegate Table I.
Motivate others Competencies for
Act as mentors effective leadership in
Build teams higher education

The emphasis should be not only on developing individual leaders, and building
human capital, but on developing leadership throughout the organization, to develop
social capital and networked relationships (Day, 2000). However, this research shows
that such relationships can be problematic when others do not share the life-world of
an academic.
Bourdieu (1977) offers some theoretical explanations. He maintains that in a
university, academic qualifications are to cultural capital what money is to economic
capital. Thus, in an academic culture, those who are not academics do not possess the
symbolic capital that is held within those credentials (Bourdieu, 1987, 1996) and which
is sustained and built through continued publication and teaching. Those who are not
academics also lack the social capital that is gained through networked relationships
within academe that are gained through research activities, academic seminars and
conferences. Bourdieu (1977) sees this as a juxtaposition of power relations at the
institutional level, rather than at the individual level. Thus, cultural capital will only
function as authority within the institutions in which it was authorized. Effective
leadership occurs where human and social capital overlap, or in the sphere where
influence, and therefore leadership, become possible. In this way, leadership is
sustained through the practices of academic life.
To conclude, this empirical study set out to identify and develop effective leaders in
higher education. It offers a theoretical explanation for why academic leadership may
be fundamentally different from leadership in other contexts. In presenting the
competencies for leadership in HE, some of these were found to be universal. Other
attributes – possibly the most important of all – were particular to universities. Rather
than “borrowing” models from business, the priority must be for researchers to use a
grounded approach to build comprehensive, new models of effective leadership in HE.

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About the author

Marion Spendlove is a Research Fellow at Aston University and lectures on Postgraduate
Research Methods at Aston Business School. She can be contacted at: m.j.spendlove@
aston.ac.uk

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