Anatomi Sistem Persarafan

Ns ENOK SURESKIARTI, M
Kep
 Organisasi Sistem Saraf
(Nervous System)

• Sistem syaraf Tepi (SST)

– Sepasang saraf spinal dan saraf kranial.
• Meneruskan pesan dari dan ke medulla
spinalis dan otak.
• Sistem saraf pusat (SSP)
– Otak dan medulla spinalis
• Pusat integrasi dan komando.
Pembagian sistem saraf
Anatomi Sistem Saraf Manusia
 Sistem Saraf Tepi: Dibagi Dua
Divisi Fungsional

• Divisi sensori (aferen)

– Serat aferen sensoris – menerima impuls dari
kulit, otot skeletal, dan sendi ke otak.
– Serat aferen visceral – menghantarkan
impuls dari organ visseral ke otak.
• Divisi Motorik (eferen).
– Menghantarkan impuls dari SSP ke efektor di
organ.
Nervous System

Figure 11.1
 Divisi Motorik: Dibagi Dua
Bagian Utama
• Sistem saraf somatik (SSS)
– Kontrol secara sadar otot-otot skeletal
• Sistem saraf otonom (SSO)
– Mengatur otot polos, otot jantung dan
kelenjar.
– Pembagian – simpatis dan parasimpatis
 Histologi Jaringan Saraf
• Dua jenis sel penting sistem saraf, yaitu:

– Neuron – sel-sel saraf yang dapat

menghantarkan sinyal listrik.
– Sel-sel pendukung – sel-sel disekitar neuron.
 Sel-sel Pendukung: Neuroglia

• Sel-sel Pendukung (sel neuroglia dan glia)

– Memberikan suatu dukungan tangga-tangga
untuk neuron.
– Memisahkan dan menyekat neuron
– Memberi petunjuk pada neuron muda untuk
membuat koneksi yang tepat.
– Meningkatkan kesehatan dan pertumbuhan.
 6 Jenis Neuroglia
• Pada saraf pusat:
– 1.) astrosit
– 2.) Mikroglia
– 3.) Sel ependimal
– 4.) Oligodendrosit
• Pada saraf tepi:
– 5.) Sel satelit
– 6.) Sel Schwann
 Astrosit
• Merupakan sel glia yang ada dalam
jumlah sangat banyak, serbaguna, dan
bercabang banyak.
• Melekat pada neuron dan pada ujung-
ujung sinapnya, dan menutupi kapiler.
 Astrosit
• Secara Fungsional:
– Mendukung melapisi neuron
– Sebagai penjangkar neuron untuk menerima
suplai zat makanan.
– Memberi petunjuk migrasi dari neuron muda
– Mengontrol lingkungan kimia
Astrosit

Figure 11.3a
 Sel Mikroglia
• Mikroglia – sel kecil, berbentuk oval
dengan prosesus seperti duri
– Sel fagosit yang monitor kesehatan
neuron
 Sel Ependimal
• Sel ependimal – beragam dalam
bentuk dari squamosa sampai
kolumnar
– Melapisi ruang tengah dari otak dan
medula spinalis.
 Oligodendrosit
• Oligodendrosit – sel-sel bercabang yang
menutupi serat saraf dari SSP.
 Sel Schwann

• Sel Schwann (neurolemmosit) – sel

yang berada disekitar serat-serat sistem
saraf tepi (SST)
 sel-sel Satelit

• Sel-sel satelit mengelilingi sel badan

neuron dengan ganglia
Neuroglia
 Neuron (sel-sel saraf)

• Unit Struktural dari SSP

– Berisikan suatu badan, akson dan dendrit
– Hidup lama, amitosis, dan mempunyai
kecepatan metobolik yang tinggi.
• Membran plasmanya berfungsi dalam:
– Memberi sinyal listrik
– Memberi sinyal dari sel ke sel selama
perkembangan.
Sel Neuron
 Badan sel saraf (Perikarion
atau Soma)
• Berisikan nukleus dan satu nukleolus)
• Merupakan pusat biosintesis utama
• Merupakan titik fokal pertumbuhan ke luar dari
proses neuronal.
• Tidak mempunyai sentriol (hence its amitotic
nature)
• Mempunyai badan Nissl yang telah berkembang
dengan baik (Retikulum endoplasma kasar)
• Berisikan suatu axon hillock – daerah
berbentuk kerucut dari akson naik
 Dendrit dari Motor Neuron
• Pendek, lonjong, memiliki prosesus
bercabang secara diffus
• Bersifat receptif atau input, bagian dari
neuron
• Sinyal listrik di sampaikan sebagai
potensial bertingkat (graded potential)
(bukan sbg potensial aksi (action
potential)
 Struktur akson
• Akson adalah serat dimana impuls saraf keluar
sel untuk ditransmisikan ke sel lain.
• Akson panjang disebut dengan serat saraf
• Biasanya hanya ada satu akson yang tidak
bercabang dalam 1 neuron
• Jika ada cabang (jarang terjadi) disebut
kolateral akson
• Terminal akson – cubing terakhir dari suatu
akson.
 Fungsi akson
• Membentuk dan menghantarkan potensial
aksi (action potential)
• Mensekresi neurotransmitters dari terminal
akson
• Pergerakan sepanjang akson terjadi
dengan dua cara:
– Anterograde — kearah terminal akson
– Retrograde — menjauh dari terminal akson
 Lapisan Myelin
• Keputih-putihan, berlemak (protein yang seperti
lemak), lapisan bersegmen yang mengelilingi
sepanjang akson.
• Berfungsi untuk:
– Melindungi akson
– Sebagai penyekat serat listrik dari satu ke yang
lainnya
– Meningkatkan kecepatan hantaran impuls saraf
 Pembentukan Lapisan Myelin
• Dibentuk oleh sel-sel Schwann di SST
• Sel Schwann:
– Amplop suatu akson di dalam suatu palung
– Mendekatkan akson dengan membran
plasmanya.
– Mempunyai lapisan membran kosenstrik yang
membentuk lapisan myelin
Pembentukan Lapisan Myelin
Lapisan Myelin dan Neurilemma:
Pembentukan

Figure 11.5a–c
 Nodus of Ranvier (Neurofibral
Nodes)

• Celah dalam lapisan myelin antara sel

Schwann di dekatnya
• Merupakan tempat dimana akson
mengalami kolateral.
• Digunakan untuk locatan hantaran impul
(saltatory)
Nodus of Ranvier
Konduksi Saltatory
 Akson tak bermyelin
• Suatu sel Schwann disekitar serat-serat
saraf tetapi gulungan/ selubung myelinnya
tidak ada
 Akson SSP
• Berisikan akson yang bermyelin dan tak
bermyelin
• Selubung myelin dibentuk oleh
oligodendrocytes
• Nodus of Ranvier menjadi spasi yang
cukup lebar pada akson
• Tidak ada neurilemma
 Bagian Otak dan Medula
spinalis

• Materi putih (White matter) – bertumpuk

padat oleh serat-serat bermyelin
• Materi kelabu (Gray matter) – lebih banyak
berisi soma dan serat saraf tidak
bermyelin.
 Klasifikasi Neuron
• Secara struktural:
– Multipolar — tiga atau lebih prosesus
– Bipolar — dua prosesus (axon dan dendrit)
– Unipolar — prosesus tunggal dan pendek.
 Klasifikasi Neuron
• Secara Fungsional:
– Sensorik (afferent) — menghantarkan impuls
ke SSP
– Motorik (efferent) — menerima impuls dari
SSP
– Interneurons (association neurons) —
menerima sinya bolak-balik dari SSP
Perbedaan kelas neuron

Table 11.1.1
Perbedaan kelas neuron

Table 11.1.2
Perbedaan kelas neuron

Table 11.1.3
 Sinap
• Sinap – suatu celah yang memediasi
penyampaian informasi dari satu neuron
ke:
– Neuron lain
– Sel efektor
 Klasifikasi Serat Saraf

• Serat saraf diklasifikasikan sesuai dgn:

– arah impuls
– jenis hubungan sinap
– sinap listrik atau sinap kimia
– Diameter
– Derajat myelinisasi
– kecepatan hantaran
 Sinap: arah Impuls

• Neuron Presinap: menghantarkan impuls

ke arah sinap.

• Neuron Postsinap: menghantarkan impuls

menjauh dari sinap
 Jenis hubungan sinap

• Aksodendritik – sinap antara akson

salah satu neuron dan dendrit lain
• Aksosomatik – sinap antara akson
salah satu neuron dengan soma yang
lainnya
• Jenis sinap yang lainnya, meliputi:
– Aksoaksonik (akson ke akson)
– Dendrodendritik (dendrit ke dendrit)
– Dendrosomatik (dendrit ke soma)
 Sinap listrik & Sinap Kimia
• Sinap listrik:
– Lebih sedikit daripada sinap kimia
– Sangat penting dalam SSP untuk:
• Bangun dari tidur
• Perhatian secara mental
• Emosi dan memori
• Hemeostasis Ion dan air
• Sinap kimia:
– Dibuat khusus untuk mengeluarkan dan menerima
neurotransmiter
– Berisikan dua bagian:
• Terminal akson neuron presinap, yang berisikan vesikel sinap
• Bagian reseptor pada dendrit atau soma dari neuron post sinap.
 Celah Sinap
• Ruang berisi cairan yg memisahkan
neuron presynap dan postsynap
• Mencegah impuls saraf dihantar secara
langsung dari satu neuron ke neuron
berikutnya.
• Transmisi melintasi celah sinap:
– Merupakan peristiwa kimia (yang
berlawanan dengan transmisi listrik)
– Memastikan komunikasi satu arah diantara
neuron.
 Celah Sinap: Hantaran Informasi
• Impuls saraf mencapai terminal akson dari
neuron presinap dan membuka saluran Ca2+.
• Neurotransmiter dikeluarkan ke dlm celah
sinap mll eksositosis sbg respon thd
sinaptotagmin
• Neurotransmiter melintasi celah sinap dan
berikatan dengan reseptor pada neuron
postsinap
• Permeabilitas membran postsynaptic berubah
menyebabkan efek eksitasi atau inhibisi
 Celah Sinap: untuk transfer
Informasi
Neurotransmitter
Ac tent

Ca2+ Na+
po
t io i a l

Axon terminal of
n

presynaptic neuron Receptor

1
Postsynaptic
Mitochondrion membrane
Postsynaptic
Axon of membrane
presynaptic
neuron Ion channel open
Synaptic vesicles 5
containing
neurotransmitter
molecules
Degraded
2 neurotransmitter

Synaptic
cleft 3
4
Ion channel closed
Ion channel Ion channel (open)
(closed)
 Neurotransmiter
• Zat kimia yang digunakan untuk
komunikasi neuronal dengan tubuh dan
otak.
• Sebanyak 50 jenis neurostransmiter yang
berbeda telah diidentifikasi
• Klasifikasi neurotransmiter:
– Secara kimiawi
– Secara fungsional
 Neurotransmiter kimiawi:
• Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Golongan amin Biogenik
• Asam Amino
• Peptides
• Novel messengers: ATP dan larutan gas
NO dan CO
 Klasifikasi Neurotransmiter berdasarkan
fungsinya

• Dua klasifikasi: excitatory dan inhibitory

– Excitatory neurotransmiter menyebabkan depolarisasi
(cth. glutamate)
– Inhibitory neurotransmitters menyebabkan
hyperpolarisasi (cth. GABA and glisin)
– Beberapa neurotransmiter mempunayi dua sifat
excitatori dan inhibitory sekaligus
• Ditentukan oleh jenis reseptor neuron postsinapt
• Contoh: asetilcholine
– Sebagai Excitatory di celah neuromuscular otot skeletal
– Inhibitory pada otot jantung
 Otak
• Berisikan jaringan abu-abu agak pink yang
berlipat-lipat
• Secara anatomi permukaan terdiri dari
hemisfer cerebral (belahan otak sebelah
kiri dan kanan), cerebelum (otak kecil), dan
batang otak.
Gambar tengkorak dewasa
(tempat otak berada)
 Structur otak orang dewasa
• Telencephalon – cerebrum: cortex, materi
putih, dan basal nuclei
• Diencephalon – thalamus, hypothalamus,
dan epithalamus
• Mesencephalon – batang otak: otak tengah
• Metencephalon – batang otak: pons
• Myelencephalon – batang otak: medulla
oblongata
Perkembangan Otak
 Sistem Saraf Pusat (SSP)
• Medulla Spinalis
– Rongga tengah diliputi oleh materi kelabu
– Bagian luarnya oleh materi putih yang
berisikan traktus serat bermyelinisasi
• Otak
– Sama dengan medulla spinalis dengan
tambahan pada materi kelabunya.
– Cerebellum mempunyai materi kelabu dalam
bagian nuclei (tengahnya)
– Cerebrum memounyai nuclei dan materi
kelabu tambahan di bagian korteks
Pola dasar SSP

Figure 12.4
Saluran2 neural pd otak dewasa

• Telencephalon – ventrikel lateral

• Diencephalon – ventrikel ketiga
• Mesencephalon – aqueduktus cerebral
• Metencephalon dan myelencephalon –
ventrikel keempat.
 Ventrikel otak
• Ventricles adalah:
– Sepasang ventrikel lateral berbentuk C
– Ventrikel ketiga ditemukan di diencephalon
– Ventrkel keempat dutemukan bagian bawah
otak dibagian dorsal dari pons
Ventrikel otak
 Hemisfer Cerebral
• Membentuk bagian superior dari otak dan
merupakan 83% dari berat otak
• Berisi tonjolan (girus) dan celah dangkal
(sulcus)
• Berisikan celah dalam yg disebut fisura
• Dipisahkan oleh fisura longitudinal
• Memounyai tiga bagian dasar: corteks,
materi putih, dan nuclei basal
Hemisfer Cerebral
 Lobus, Girus, dan Sulcus utama dari
Hemisfer Cerebral

• Sulkus yang dalam membagi hemisfer ke

dalam lima lobus:
– Frontal, parietal, temporal, oksipital, dan
insula
• Sulkus sentralis – membagi hemisfer
menjadi lobus frontal dan parietal.
Lobus Otak

Figure 12.6a–b
 Lobus, Girus, dan Sulcus utama dari
Hemisfer Cerebral

• Sulkus Parieto-occipital – memisahkan

lobus parietal dan oksipital
• Sulkus Lateralis – memisahkan lobus
parietalis dan temporal
• Girus presentralis dan postsentralis
dibatasi oleh sulkus sentralis
 Korteks Serebral
• Korteks – materi kelabu dibagian permukaan;
beratnya 40% dari masa otak
• Berfungsi untuk sensasi, kommunikasi, memori,
pemahaman, dan gerakan sadar.
• Setiap hemisfer bekerja secara kontralateral
(mengontrol bagian badan yang berlainan)
• Hemisfer kiri dan kanan mempunyai fungsi
yang tidak sama
• Tidak ada area fungsional yang bekerja sendiri,
perilaku sadar melibatkan kortek.
 Area Fungsional dari Korteks
Serebral

• Tiga jenis area fungsional, yaitu:

– Area Motorik – mengontrol gerakan sadar
– Area Sensorik – mengontrol sensori yang
disadari
– Area asosiasi – mengintegrasikan informasi
yang berbeda-beda
Area Fungsional dari Korteks
Serebral
Area Fungsional dari Korteks
Cerebral
 Cerebral Cortex: Motor Areas

• Korteks motorik Primer (somatik)

• Korteks Premotorik
• Area Broca
• Lapangan pandang mata Frontal
 Korteks motorik Primer
• Terletak di girus prasentalis

• Sel-sel piramidal dimana akson ketas

membentuk traktus kortikospinal

• Memberikan kontrol secara sadar pada

gerakan yang tepat, terlatih dan disadari
Homunculus Kortek Motorik
Primer
 Korteks Premotorik

• Terletak dibagian anterior dari girus

precentralis
• Mengontrol sesuatu yang telah dibelajari,
pengulangan, atau pola ketrampilan motorik
• Mengkoordinasikan tindakan simultan dan
simulasi
• Terlibat dalam pergerakan yg direncanakan
 Area Broca

• Terletak di bagian anterior dan inferior dari

area premotor ik
• Hanya ada di salah satu hemifer (biasanya
sebelah kiri)
• Motorik bicara yang langsung pada otot-
otot lidah
• Aktif bila seseorang akan/ dipersiapan
untuk bicara
 Lapangan Mata Frontal

• Terletak dianterior korteks pre motorik dan

dibagian superior dari area Broca
• Mengontrol pergerakan mata secara sadar
 Area Sensoris

• Korteks somatosensori primer

• Somatosensori berhubungan dengan
korteks
• Area Penglihatan (Visual) dan
pendengaran (auditori)
• Olfaktoris (penghiduan), pengecapan, dan
keseimbangan
Area Sensori
 Korteks Somatosensori Primer

• Terlatak di dalam girus post sentralis

• Area ini:
– Menerima informasi dari kulit dan otot skelatal
– Menghambat dalam menganalisis perbedaan
tempat
Homunculus Korteks Somatosensori
Primer
 Somatosensory Association
Cortex
• Located posterior to the primary
somatosensory cortex
• Integrates sensory information
• Forms comprehensive understanding of
the stimulus
• Determines size, texture, and relationship
of parts
 Visual Areas

• Primary visual (striate) cortex

– Seen on the extreme posterior tip of the
occipital lobe
– Most of it is buried in the calcarine sulcus
– Receives visual information from the retinas
• Visual association area
– Surrounds the primary visual cortex
– Interprets visual stimuli (e.g., color, form, and
movement)
 Auditory Areas
• Primary auditory cortex
– Located at the superior margin of the temporal
lobe
– Receives information related to pitch, rhythm,
and loudness
• Auditory association area
– Located posterior to the primary auditory
cortex
– Stores memories of sounds and permits
perception of sounds
– Wernicke’s area
 Association Areas
• Prefrontal cortex
• Language areas
• General (common) interpretation area
• Visceral association area
Association Areas

Figure 12.8a
 Prefrontal Cortex
• Located in the anterior portion of the frontal
lobe
• Involved with intellect, cognition, recall, and
personality
• Necessary for judgment, reasoning,
persistence, and conscience
• Closely linked to the limbic system
(emotional part of the brain)
 Language Areas
• Located in a large area surrounding the left (or
language-dominant) lateral sulcus
• Major parts and functions:
– Wernicke’s area –sounding out unfamiliar words
– Broca’s area – speech preparation and production
– Lateral prefrontal cortex – language
comprehension and word analysis
– Lateral and ventral temporal lobe – coordinate
auditory and visual aspects of language
 General (Common)
Interpretation Area
• Ill-defined region including parts of the
temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes
• Found in one hemisphere, usually the left
• Integrates incoming signals into a single
thought
• Involved in processing spatial relationships
 Visceral Association Area

• Located in the cortex of the insula

• Involved in conscious perception of visceral
sensations
 Lateralization of Cortical
Function
• Lateralization – each hemisphere has
abilities not shared with its partner
• Cerebral dominance – designates the
hemisphere dominant for language
• Left hemisphere – controls language, math,
and logic
• Right hemisphere – controls visual-spatial
skills, emotion, and artistic skills
 Cerebral White Matter
• Consists of deep myelinated fibers and
their tracts
• It is responsible for communication
between:
– The cerebral cortex and lower CNS center,
and areas of the cerebrum
 Cerebral White Matter
• Types include:
– Commissures – connect corresponding gray
areas of the two hemispheres
– Association fibers – connect different parts of
the same hemisphere
– Projection fibers – enter the hemispheres
from lower brain or cord centers
Fiber Tracts in White Matter
Fiber Tracts in White Matter
 Basal Nuclei

• Masses of gray matter found deep within the

cortical white matter
• The corpus striatum is composed of three
parts
– Caudate nucleus
– Lentiform nucleus – composed of the putamen
and the globus pallidus
– Fibers of internal capsule running between and
through caudate and lentiform nuclei
Basal Nuclei
Basal Nuclei
 Functions of Basal Nuclei
• Though somewhat elusive, the following
are thought to be functions of basal nuclei
– Influence muscular activity
– Regulate attention and cognition
– Regulate intensity of slow or stereotyped
movements
– Inhibit antagonistic and unnecessary
movement
 Diencephalon
• Central core of the forebrain
• Consists of three paired structures –
thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
• Encloses the third ventricle
Diencephalon
 Thalamus
• Paired, egg-shaped masses that form the
superolateral walls of the third ventricle
• Connected at the midline by the
intermediate mass
• Contains four groups of nuclei – anterior,
ventral, dorsal, and posterior
• Nuclei project and receive fibers from the
cerebral cortex
Thalamus
 Thalamic Function
• Sensual afferent impulses converge and
synapse in the thalamus
• Impulses of similar function are sorted out,
edited, and relayed as a group
• All inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex
pass through the thalamus
• Mediates sensation, motor activities,
cortical arousal, learning, and memory
 Hypothalamus
• Located below the thalamus, it caps the
brainstem and forms the inferolateral walls of the
third ventricle
• Mammillary bodies
– Small, paired nuclei bulging anteriorly from the
hypothalamus
– Relay station for olfactory pathways
• Infundibulum – stalk of the hypothalamus;
connects to the pituitary gland
– Main visceral control center of the body
Hypothalamic Nuclei
 Hypothalamic Function
• Regulates blood pressure, rate and force of
heartbeat, digestive tract motility, rate and
depth of breathing, and many other visceral
activities
• Perception of pleasure, fear, and rage
• Maintains normal body temperature
• Regulates feelings of hunger and satiety
• Regulates sleep and the sleep cycle
 Endocrine Functions of the
Hypothalamus
• Releasing hormones control secretion of
hormones by the anterior pituitary
• The supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei
produce ADH and oxytocin
 Epithalamus
• Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon;
forms roof of the third ventricle
• Pineal gland – extends from the posterior
border and secretes melatonin
– Melatonin – a hormone involved with sleep
regulation, sleep-wake cycles, and mood
• Choroid plexus – a structure that secretes
cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)
Epithalamus
Human Brain: Ventral Aspect

Figure 12.14
 Brain Stem
• Consists of three regions – midbrain, pons,
and medulla oblongata
• Similar to spinal cord but contains
embedded nuclei
• Controls automatic behaviors necessary
for survival
• Provides the pathway for tracts between
higher and lower brain centers
• Associated with 10 of the 12 pairs of
cranial nerves
Brain Stem
Brain Stem
Brain Stem

Figure 12.15c
 Midbrain

• Located between the diencephalon and

the pons
• Midbrain structures include:
– Cerebral peduncles – two bulging
structures that contain descending
pyramidal motor tracts
– Cerebral aqueduct – hollow tube that
connects the third and fourth ventricles
– Various nuclei
 Midbrain Nuclei
• Nuclei that control cranial nerves III
(oculomotor) and IV (trochlear)
• Corpora quadrigemina – four domelike
protrusions of the dorsal midbrain
• Superior colliculi – visual reflex centers
 Midbrain Nuclei
• Inferior colliculi – auditory relay centers
• Substantia nigra – functionally linked to
basal nuclei
• Red nucleus – largest nucleus of the
reticular formation; red nuclei are relay
nuclei for some descending motor
pathways
Midbrain Nuclei
 Pons
• Bulging brainstem region between the
midbrain and the medulla oblongata
• Forms part of the anterior wall of the fourth
ventricle
• Fibers of the pons:
– Connect higher brain centers and the spinal cord
– Relay impulses between the motor cortex and
the cerebellum
 Pons
• Origin of cranial nerves V (trigeminal), VI
(abducens), and VII (facial)
• Contains nuclei of the reticular formation
Pons
 Medulla Oblongata
• Most inferior part of the brain stem
• Along with the pons, forms the ventral wall of
the fourth ventricle
• Contains a choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle
• Pyramids – two longitudinal ridges formed by
corticospinal tracts
• Decussation of the pyramids – crossover points
of the corticospinal tracts
Medulla Oblongata

Figure 12.16c
 Medulla Nuclei
• Inferior olivary nuclei – gray matter that
relays sensory information
• Cranial nerves X, XI, and XII are
associated with the medulla
• Vestibular nuclear complex – synapses
that mediate and maintain equilibrium
• Ascending sensory tract nuclei, including
nucleus cuneatus and nucleus gracilis
 Medulla Nuclei
• Cardiovascular control center – adjusts
force and rate of heart contraction
• Respiratory centers – control rate and
depth of breathing
• Additional centers – regulate vomiting,
hiccuping, swallowing, coughing, and
sneezing
 The Cerebellum
• Located dorsal to the pons and medulla
• Protrudes under the occipital lobes of the
cerebrum
• Makes up 11% of the brain’s mass
• Provides precise timing and appropriate
patterns of skeletal muscle contraction
• Cerebellar activity occurs subconsciously
The Cerebellum
 Anatomy of the Cerebellum
• Two bilaterally symmetrical hemispheres
connected medially by the vermis
• Folia – transversely oriented gyri
• Each hemisphere has three lobes – anterior,
posterior, and flocculonodular
• Neural arrangement – gray matter cortex,
internal white matter, scattered nuclei
• Arbor vitae – distinctive treelike pattern of
the cerebellar white matter
 Cerebellar Peduncles
• Three paired fiber tracts that connect the
cerebellum to the brain stem
• All fibers in the cerebellum are ipsilateral
• Superior peduncles connect the
cerebellum to the midbrain
• Middle peduncles connect the pons to
the cerebellum
• Inferior peduncles connect the medulla
to the cerebellum
 Cerebellar Processing

• Cerebellum receives impulses of the intent

to initiate voluntary muscle contraction
• Proprioceptors and visual signals “inform”
the cerebellum of the body’s condition
• Cerebellar cortex calculates the best way
to perform a movement
• A “blueprint” of coordinated movement is
sent to the cerebral motor cortex
 Cerebellar Cognitive Function
• Plays a role in language and problem
solving
• Recognizes and predicts sequences of
events
 Functional Brain System
• Networks of neurons working together and
spanning wide areas of the brain
• The two systems are:
– Limbic system
– Reticular formation
 Limbic System

• Structures located on the medial aspects of

cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon
• Includes the rhinencephalon, amygdala,
hypothalamus, and anterior nucleus of the
thalamus
 Limbic System
• Parts especially important in emotions:
– Amygdala – deals with anger, danger, and
fear responses
– Cingulate gyrus – plays a role in expressing
emotions via gestures, and resolves mental
conflict
• Puts emotional responses to odors – e.g.,
skunks smell bad
Limbic System
 Limbic System: Emotion and
Cognition
• The limbic system interacts with the
prefrontal lobes, therefore:
– One can react emotionally to conscious
understandings
– One is consciously aware of emotion in one’s
life
• Hippocampal structures – convert new
information into long-term memories
 Reticular Formation
• Composed of three broad columns along
the length of the brain stem
– Raphe nuclei
– Medial (large cell) group
– Lateral (small cell) group
• Has far-flung axonal connections with
hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebellum, and
spinal cord
Reticular Formation
 Reticular Formation: RAS and
Motor Function
• RAS – Reticular Activating System
– Sends impulses to the cerebral cortex to keep
it conscious and alert
– Filters out repetitive and weak stimuli
• Motor function
– Helps control coarse motor movements
– Autonomic centers regulate visceral motor
functions – e.g., vasomotor, cardiac, and
respiratory centers
 Consciousness
• Encompasses perception of sensation,
voluntary initiation and control of
movement, and capabilities associated with
higher mental processing
• Involves simultaneous activity of large
areas of the cerebral cortex
• Is superimposed on other types of neural
activity
 Consciousness
• Is holistic and totally interconnected
• Clinical consciousness is defined on a
continuum that grades levels of behavior –
alertness, drowsiness, stupor, coma
 Memory
• Memory is the storage and retrieval of
information
• The three principles of memory are:
– Storage – occurs in stages and is
continually changing
– Processing – accomplished by the
hippocampus and surrounding structures
– Memory traces – chemical or structural
changes that encode memory
Memory Processing
Proposed Memory Circuits
 Protection of the Brain
• The brain is protected by bone, meninges,
and cerebrospinal fluid
• Harmful substances are shielded from the
brain by the blood-brain barrier
 Meninges
• Three connective tissue membranes lie
external to the CNS – dura mater, arachnoid
mater, and pia mater
• Functions of the meninges
– Cover and protect the CNS
– Protect blood vessels and enclose venous
sinuses
– Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– Form partitions within the skull
Meninges

Figure 12.24a
 Dura Mater

• Leathery, strong meninx composed of two

fibrous connective tissue layers
• The two layers separate in certain areas
and form dural sinuses
 Dura Mater
• Three dural septa extend inward and limit
excessive movement of the brain
– Falx cerebri – fold that dips into the
longitudinal fissure
– Falx cerebelli – runs along the vermis of the
cerebellum
– Tentorium cerebelli – horizontal dural fold
extends into the transverse fissure
Dura Mater

Figure 12.25
 Arachnoid Mater
• The middle meninx, which forms a loose brain
covering
• It is separated from the dura mater by the
subdural space
• Beneath the arachnoid is a wide subarachnoid
space filled with CSF and large blood vessels
• Arachnoid villi protrude superiorly and permit
CSF to be absorbed into venous blood
Arachnoid Mater

Figure 12.24a
 Pia Mater
• Deep meninx composed of delicate
connective tissue that clings tightly to the
brain
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Watery solution similar in composition to
blood plasma
• Contains less protein and different ion
concentrations than plasma
• Forms a liquid cushion that gives buoyancy
to the CNS organs
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Prevents the brain from crushing under its
own weight
• Protects the CNS from blows and other
trauma
• Nourishes the brain and carries chemical
signals throughout it
Circulation of CSF

Figure 12.26b
 Choroid Plexuses
• Clusters of capillaries that form tissue fluid
filters, which hang from the roof of each
ventricle
• Have ion pumps that allow them to alter ion
concentrations of the CSF
• Help cleanse CSF by removing wastes
Choroid Plexuses
 Blood-Brain Barrier
• Protective mechanism that helps maintain
a stable environment for the brain
• Bloodborne substances are separated from
neurons by:
– Continuous endothelium of capillary walls
– Relatively thick basal lamina
– Bulbous feet of astrocytes
Blood-Brain Barrier: Functions
• Selective barrier that allows nutrients to pass
freely
• Is ineffective against substances that can
diffuse through plasma membranes
• Absent in some areas (vomiting center and
the hypothalamus), allowing these areas to
monitor the chemical composition of the blood
• Stress increases the ability of chemicals to
pass through the blood-brain barrier
Tarereng kyu