PERKULIAHAN (SAP)
MATA KULIAH
STRATEGI BELAJAR MENGAJAR BIOLOGI
JADWAL PERKULIAHAN :
STRATEGI BELAJAR MENGAJAR BIOLOGI
Semester Ganjil Tahun Ajaran 2017-2018
Produk Perkuliahan : Silabus, RPP, GBPM, Story Board, Biovideo SBM Biologi
7. Standar Kompetensi:
Mahasiswa dapat menerapkan pemahaman tentang SBM Biologi kedalam penyusunan
Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran (RPP) dan mendemonstrasikan penerapan berbagai
metode pembelajaran Biologi untuk sekolah menengah dengan mengintegrasikan berbagai
keterampilan mengajar, serta memproduksi media audiovisual.
8. Tujuan Perkuliahan
1) Mengidentifikasi pandangan pendidikan menurut pemikir Indonesia
dan pemikir Barat
2) Mengidentifikasi berbagai pendekatan pembelajaran yang tepat
untuk pembelajaran Biologi
3) Mengidentifikasi berbagai model dan metode pembelajaran yang
tepat untuk pembelajaran Biologi
4) Mengembangkan RPP Biologi untuk Sekolah Menengah
5) Merancang skenario untuk membuat media audiovisual pembelajaran
aktif Biologi
6) Membuat media audio visual pembelajaran aktif Biologi
9. Substansi Materi :
1) Pandangan Pendidikan menururt pemikir Indonesia
2) Pandangan pendidikan menurut pemikir Barat
3) Pendekatan Pembelajaran Biologi
4) Model-model pembelajaran Biologi
5) Media Pembelajaran Biologi : Dari Konvensional sampai ICT
6) Penilaian Pembelajaran Biologi
10. Penilaian Perkuliahan
1) Penilaian Kognitif melalui tes UTS dan UAS
Soal Paket A
Soal Paket B
Soal Paket C
Soal Paket A
Soal Pakel B
5
1. Bagaimana peranan pembelajaran Delphi untuk meningkatkan
kompetensi guru biologi pada bidang teknologi dan sejauhmana
pembelajaran ini dapat meningkatkan kompetensi guru terutama pada
guru-guru yang berada di Negara berkembang?
2. Jelaskan bagaimana kaitan antara peranan amygdale pada otak
dengan intelegensi emosional manusia.
3. Faktor-faktor apa saja yang menghambat mempergunakan fasilitas
teknologi dalam pengajaran?
4. Bagaimana pengaruh pemberian kursus laboratorium jarak jauh
terhadap kompetensi skill siswa apakah ada syarat tertentu bagi
sekolah untuk melaksanakan metode tersebut?
5. Bagaimana penerapan metode mengajar kontemporer pada
pembelajaran biologi bagi siswa yang agak lambat menyerap pelajaran?
Soal Paket C
1. Bagaimana pengaruh penerapan teknologi animasi dalam pengajaran
biologi dan kaitannya dengan penyimpanan memori jangka panjang
siswa?
2. Di Indonesia sendiri bagaimana usaha yang paling efektif diterapkan
untuk meningkatkan teknik belajar aktif dalam pembelajaran biologi di
PT?
3. Upaya apa yang dapat dilakukan guru jika siswa mengalami
miskonsepsi mengenai suatu materi pelajaran di SLTP?
4. Bagaimana cara menerapkan ketrampilan berpikir kritis siswa di
Indonesia?
5. Bagaimana pengaruh web-based learning atau teknologi belajar
menggunakan internet dalam proses belajar Biologi secara aktif ?
No ASPEK 1 2 3 4 5
1 Pemahaman materi
2 Kemampuan Bertanya
3 Kemampuan Menjawab Pertanyaan
4 Kemampuan menanggapi pendapat orang lain
5 Sistematika Argumen
6 Kemampuan menyimpulkan
7 Partisipasi dalam kelompok
Total
6
Presenter: _____________________________ Hari/Tgl : _________________________
A3.Persiapan Alat/Bahan/Media
B2.Interaksi Guru-Siswa
B9.Teknik evaluasi
C2.Teknik Penugasan
C3.Pengelolaan Waktu
Skor Total
Keterangan: 5 (sangat baik), 4 (baik), 3 (cukup baik), 2 (kurang baik), 1 (tidak baik)
Kriteria:
Sangat kompeten : 81 – 100; Cukup Kompeten : 61 - 80
Kurang Kompeten : 41 – 60 Tidak Kompeten : 20 - 40
7
R.5 LEMBAR PENGAMATAN VIDEO PEMBELAJARAN
BIOLOGI
TOPIK : ___________________________________________________________
A3.Persiapan
Alat/Bahan/Media
B2.Interaksi anggota
kelompok
B3. Kemampuan
memerankan sesuai
skenario
B6.Penerapan Metode
Pembelajaran
B11. Kemampuan
8
presenter
C2.Pemilihan ilustrasi
musik
Skor Total
9
Suparno, P. (1997). Filsafat Konstruktivisme dalam Pendidikan.
Yogyakarta. Kanisius
Smith, P.L., & Ragan, T.J. (2005). Instructional Design. Oklahoma. John
Willey Sons
Tim Dosen. (2007) Diktat Kuliah DPP Biologi II. UNIMED. Medan.
Tatap Muka I
Tujuan Pembelajaran :
Mengenal berbagai cara memberdayakan memori jangka pendek (Short Term Memory)
dan memori jangka panjang (Long Term Memory)
Kompetensi Dasar :
Mempraktekkan berbagai games untuk memberdayakan memori jangka pendek (Short
Term Memory) dan memori jangka panjang (Long Term Memory)
10
Indikator:
1) Mampu mempraktekkan games dalam pembelajaran biologi untuk memberdayakan
memori jangka pendek (Short Term Memory)
2) Mampu mempraktekkan games dalam pembelajaran biologi untuk memberdayakan
memori jangka panjang (Long Term Memory)
Substansi Kajian : Memori Jangka Pendek dan Memori Jangka Panjang
I. Prakondisi
1. Penentuan Metode Pembelajaran: Games dalam pembelajaran biologi untuk
menciptakan readiness seperti dikemukakan Gagne
2. Penentuan Sumber Belajar
1. Buku teks, artikel, dan makalah yang membahas memori
2. Media audiovisual (TV) dan ICT (internet) yang membahas memori
2. Kegiatan mahasiswa
Mahasiswa dibagi menjadi 5 kelompok. Tiap kelompok mencari dan membahas
informasi mengenai memori. Sumber informasi diperoleh dari internet, buku, artikel
koran. Tiap kelompok mempraktekkan satu games cara memberdayakan memori
jangka pendek atau jangka panjang.
Kemudian mahasiswa diarahkan untuk melakukan diskusi forum untuk
menyampaikan manfaat dari setiap games tersebut dalam pembelajaran.
B. Materi Pembelajaran
Mengacu pada berbagai informasi tentang memory dan perannya dalam belajar.
Tatap Muka II
Tujuan Pembelajaran :
Mengenal berbagai filsafat belajar, pendekatan, model, metode pembelajaran biologi
11
Kompetensi Dasar :
Mengidentifikasi dan mengkaji berbagai filsafat belajar, pendekatan, model, metode
pembelajaran biologi
Indikator:
1) Mampu membedakan berbagai filsafat belajar
2) Mampu menganalisis berbagai pendekatan pembelajaran biologi
3) Mampu membandingkan berbagai model pembelajaran menurut Joyce & Weil
4) Mampu menggunakan beragam metode sebagai rujukan dalam proses pembelajaran
Substansi Kajian : Filsafat Belajar, Pendekatan, Model, Metode Pembelajaran
III. Prakondisi
1. Penentuan Metode Pembelajaran
Pertemuan ini sesuai dengan tujuannya adalah mengkaji berbagai filsafat
belajar, pendekatan, model, metode pembelajaran biologi.Metode pembelajaran
yang tepat adalah diskusi kelompok, kaji literatur, dan diskusi forum.
2. Kegiatan mahasiswa
Mahasiswa dibagi menjadi 5 kelompok. Tiap kelompok mencari dan membahas
informasi mengenai filsafat belajar kognitivisme, behaviorisme, dan konstruktivisme
Sumber informasi diperoleh dari internet, buku, artikel koran. Tiap anggota
kelompok membahas satu satu filsafat belajar, kendala penerapan dalam
pembelajaran, serta pentingnya pandangan tersebut untuk masa depan.
Kel. 1. Filsafat Belajar Kognitivisme
Kel. 2 Filsafat Belajar Behaviorisme
12
Kel. 3 Filsafat Belajar Konstruktivisme
B. Materi Pembelajaran
Mengacu pada berbagai Filsafat Belajar dan Model Pembelajaran
V. Prakondisi
1. Penentuan Metode Pembelajaran
Pertemuan ini sesuai dengan tujuannya adalah mengkaji berbagai pandangan
pendidikan dari para pemikir pendidikan Indonesia. Metode pembelajaran yang
tepat adalah diskusi kelompok, kaji literatur, dan diskusi forum.
13
4. Media audiovisual (TV) dan ICT (internet) yang membahas
pandangan pendidikan menurut pemikir Indonesia
2. Kegiatan mahasiswa
Mahasiswa dibagi menjadi 5 kelompok. Tiap kelompok mencari dan membahas
informasi mengenai pendangan pendidikan menurut seorang pemikir Indonesia.
Sumber informasi diperoleh dari internet, buku, artikel koran. Tiap anggota
kelompok membahas satu aspek misalnya aspek sejarahnya, karakteristik pemikiran,
kendala penerapan dalam pembelajaran, serta pentingnya pandangan tersebut untuk
masa depan.
Kel. 1. KH. Dewantoro,
Kel. 2 Muhammad Boehori,
Kel. 3 Kak Seto,
Kel. 4 Moh.Hatta,
Kel. 5 RA Kartini,
B. Materi Pembelajaran
Mengacu pada berbagai pandangan pendidikan menurut para pemikir Indonesia
V. Proses Evaluasi
1. Dimensi : kognisi, afeksi
2. Instrumentasi : K.1, R.1
Tatap Muka IV
14
Tujuan Pembelajaran : Mengenal berbagai pandangan pendidikan menurut para pemikir
pendidikan Barat
Kompetensi Dasar : Mengidentifikasi dan mengkaji berbagai pandangan pendidikan
para pemikir Barat
VII. Prakondisi
1. Penentuan Metode Pembelajaran
Pertemuan ini sesuai dengan tujuannya adalah mengkaji berbagai pandangan
pendidikan dari para pemikir pendidikan Barat. Metode pembelajaran yang tepat
adalah diskusi kelompok, kaji literatur, dan diskusi forum.
2. Kegiatan mahasiswa
Mahasiswa dibagi menjadi 5 kelompok. Tiap kelompok mencari dan membahas
informasi mengenai pendangan pendidikan menurut seorang pemikir Indonesia.
Sumber informasi diperoleh dari internet, buku, artikel koran. Tiap anggota
kelompok membahas satu aspek misalnya aspek sejarahnya, karakteristik pemikiran,
kendala penerapan dalam pembelajaran, serta pentingnya pandangan tersebut untuk
masa depan.
15
Kel. 1. David Ausubel
Kel. 2 Jean Piaget
Kel. 3 Bruner
Kel. 4 Gagne
Kel. 5 Vygotsky
B. Materi Pembelajaran
Mengacu pada berbagai pandangan pendidikan menurut para pemikir Barat
Tatap Muka V
IX. Prakondisi
1. Penentuan Metode Pembelajaran
Pertemuan ini sesuai dengan tujuannya adalah mengkaji berbagai media.
Metode pembelajaran yang tepat adalah diskusi kelompok, kaji literatur, dan
diskusi forum.
16
Buku teks, artikel, dan makalah yang membahas media pendidikan
Media audiovisual (TV) dan ICT (internet) yang membahas fungsi dan manfaat
media dalam pendidikan biologi
X. A. Prosedur Pembelajaran
1. Kegiatan dosen
Dosen memberikan arahan kepada mahasiswa untuk menghimpun informasi dari
berbagai sumber dan membahasnya dalam kelompok dilanjutkan dengan diskusi
forum didalam kelas tentang berbagai media pendidikan menurut Edgar Dale.
2. Kegiatan mahasiswa
Mahasiswa dibagi menjadi 5 kelompok. Tiap kelompok mencari dan membahas
informasi mengenai media pendidikan. Sumber informasi diperoleh dari internet,
buku, artikel koran. Tiap anggota kelompok mengoleksi atau membuat media yang
tepat untuk melengkapi RPP yang telah dibuatnya.
B. Materi Pembelajaran
Mengacu pada berbagai pandangan pendidikan menurut para pemikir Indonesia
Tatap Muka VI
17
Kompetensi Dasar : Mengamati Demonstrasi Pembelajaran Aktif Biologi
XI. Prakondisi
1. Penentuan Metode Pembelajaran
Pertemuan ini sesuai dengan tujuannya adalah mengamati proses pembelajaran
biologi. Metode pembelajaran yang tepat adalah demonstrasi.
B. Materi Pembelajaran
Mengacu pada berbagai strategi pendidikan menurut para pemikir Indonesia & Barat
Indikator:
1) Mampu memerankan sebagai guru biologi dalam proses pembelajaran biologi
2) Mampu menerapkan keterampilan dasar mengajar dalam pembelajaran biologi
3) Mampu menggunakan berbagai metode pembelajaran yang relevan dalam
visualisasi konsep biologi
4) Mampu menggunakan berbagai media yang relevan dalam pembelejaran biologi
5) Mampu menciptakan pembelajaran biologi yang inovatif dan kreatif, dan kontekstual
XIII. Prakondisi
1. Pemilihan Silabus dan RPP pembelajaran biologi di SMP dan SMA.
2. Penentuan Sumber Belajar
Informasi yang relevan dengan topik skenario dari berbagai sumber seperti buku
teks, artikel, makalah, internet, TV digunakan untuk simulasi.
2. Kegiatan mahasiswa
Tiap mahasiswa melakukan simulasi masing-masing 30’ sesuai jadwal yang telah
disepakati selama 5x pertemuan. Ketika seorang mahasiswa melakukan simulasi,
mahasiswa lain menjadi observer dengan menggunakan lembar pengamatan
pembelajaran biologi.
B. Materi Pembelajaran
Mengacu pada berbagai informasi yang relevan dengan strategi pembelajaran Biologi
19
IX. Proses Evaluasi
1. Dimensi : kognisi, afeksi , psikomotor
2. Instrumentasi : K.1, R.1
Indikator:
1) Mampu menganalisis kekuatan dan kelemahan berbagai metode pembelajaran
2) Mampu memvisualisasikan pemahaman konsep biologi
3) Mampu menggunakan berbagai metode pembelajaran yang relevan dalam
visualisasi konsep biologi
4) Mampu menciptakan skenario pembelajaran konsep biologi yang dianggap sulit
5) Mampu mengkaitkan pemahaman konsep biologi dengan masalah lingkungan sekitar
6) Mampu menciptakan media audiovisual pembelajaran biologi Sekolah Menengah
XV. Prakondisi
1. Pemilihan topik-topik pembelajaran biologi di SMP dan SMA yang telah
disimulasikan secara individu, yang terbaik berdasarkan peer assessment
menggunakan format R.4, diangkat kedalam skenario untuk pembuatan media
audio visual di akhir semester. Setiap kelompok mendiskusikan untuk memilih
dan menentukan topik skenario yang diambil dari konsep-konsep biologi yang
selama ini dianggap sulit dipelajari baik oleh guru maupun murid. Setiap
kelompok selain mempersiapkan skenario, juga mempersiapkan ilustrasi yang
relevan, media pendukung yang sesuai, serta pemilihan lokasi pengambilan
gambar.
20
Informasi yang relevan dengan topik skenario dari berbagai sumber seperti buku
teks, artikel, makalah, internet, TV digunakan untuk pembuatan narasi dan
skenario.
2. Kegiatan mahasiswa
Tiap kelompok melakukan gladi resik untuk beradaptasi dengan lokasi shooting dan
mendapat tanggapan serta saran dari kelompok lain. Setelah gladi resik, maka
dilakukan pengambilan adegan. Semua kelompok memilih seting di luar kelas.
Semua rekaman gambar dilanjutkan pada proses editing, berkolaborasi dengan
mahasiswa Jurusan Seni untuk penambahan ilustrasi musik.
3.Video yang sudah selesai diproduksi, diamati bersama oleh mahasiswa dan dosen
dengan menggunakan format R.5 untuk melakukan refleksi terhadap produksi video.
Mahasiswa dan dosen mengamati, menggali serta berupaya menemukan aspek-aspek
positif dari pembelajaran melalui pembuatan media audiovisual dan tindak lanjut
penggunaannya dalam pembelajaran Biologi.
B. Materi Pembelajaran
Mengacu pada berbagai informasi yang relevan dengan strategi pembelajaran Biologi
X. Proses Evaluasi
1. Dimensi : kognisi, afeksi dan psikomotorik
2. Instrumentasi : K1, K2, R3, R.4, dan R.5
Ujian tengah semester tanggal: Oktober 2008
Ujian akhir semester tanggal : Januari 2009
Penyerahan Hasil Ujian (DPNA) ke Jurusan Akhir Januari 2009
21
Sampel Bahan Ajar bersumber dari Internet.
According to Bruce Joce, models of teaching are really models of learning. As we help
students acquire information, ideas, skills, values, ways of thinking, and means of of
expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn. How teaching is conducted
has a large impact on students' abilities to educate themselves.
The models of teaching have been grouped into four families that share orientations toward
human beings and how they learn. These are the social family, the information-processing
family, the personal family, and the behavioral systems family.
When asked to identify the purpose of teaching, many people will respond: "To impart the
curriculum," "to pass on knowledge to a new generation," or "to teach stuff." Although all
attempts to educate a student involve information processing, many methods and theories
are designed specifically to help students acquire and operate on data.
The models presented here represent a distinct philosophy about how people think and
about how teachers can impact the way students deal with the information they are
receiving. These models are not constructed around mechanistic theories about the human
mind. Some, in fact, have rather unstructured views of information handling. They also
vary in the depth of their approach, from a narrow focus on memorization to specific types
of inductive thinking.
2. Learning theorists. The belief that we use previous learned concepts to process
incoming information is at the heart of these theories. Verbal learning and experiential
learning models have evolved from the efforts of David Ausubel and Jerome Bruner and his
associates. These strategies provide a set of concepts that alter an individual's thinking
processes.
3. The academic disciplines. Many models have been developed to teach either the major
concepts or the systems of inquiry used by the disciplines. The underlying assumption is
that, as students learn the processes and ideas of the discipline, they incorporate them into
their own systems and behave differently as a result. Joseph Schwab and his associates of
the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study committee developed this model as one of the
chief methods for a biology course for secondary schools.
4. Developmental studies of the human intellect. Investigators have also studied the
development of intellectual processes. These studies provide a tentative map of intellectual
development, but are useful in generating theories about how to increase intellectual
development. Piaget and Ericson's work serves as a foundation for these models.
Information processing models emphasize strategies that adopt our own natural curiosity
and desire to make sense of the world around us. These tools allow us to acquire and
organize data, identify problems and generate solutions.
Concept Attainment
This model, built around the studies of thinking conducted by Jerome Bruner, is designed to
help students learn concepts for organizing information and to help students become more
effective at learning concepts. It includes an efficient method for presenting organized
information from a wide range of areas of study to students of every stage of development.
Inductive Thinking
The ability to create concepts is generally regarded as one of the basic thinking skills. This
model induces students to find and organize information, to create names for concepts, and
to explore ways of becoming more skillful at discovering and organizing information and at
creating and testing hypotheses describing relationships among sets of data. The model,
23
evolved from the work of Hilda Taba, is used in wide variety of curriculum areas and with
students of all ages.
Inquiry Training
Designed to teach students to engage in causal reasoning and to become more fluent and
precise in asking questions, building concepts and hypotheses, and testing them, this model
was first formulated by Richard Suchman. Although originally used with the natural
sciences it has also been applied in the social sciences and in training programs with
personal and social content.
Advance Organizers
During the last twenty years this model, formulated by David Ausubel has become one of
the most researched in the information processing family. It is designed to provide students
with a cognitive structure for comprehending material presented through lectures, readings,
and other media. It has been employed with almost every conceivable content and with
students of every age. It can be easily combined with other models- for example, when
presentations are mixed with inductive activity.
Memorization
Mnemonics are strategies for memorizing and assimilating information. Teachers can use
mnemonics to guide their presentations of material (teaching in such a way that students
can easily absorb the information), and they can teach devices that students can use to
enhance their individual and cooperative study of information and concepts. This model has
also been tested over many curriculum areas and with students of many ages and
characteristics. As indicated previously, some of the applications of memorization strategies
have had dramatic effect.
Scientific Inquiry
A number of models have been developed to teach academic content with the methods by
which it was created. Such models teach the scientific method, the fundamental concepts of
the disciplines and basic information.
24
The long-term goal of all information processing models is to teach students how to think
effectively. Complex intellectual strategies allow students to absorb more concepts and
information.
Each of us sees the world from a different perspective, a perspective that derives from our
experiences, environment and relationships. We each carry around a different set of lenses
through which we interpret events, translate language and transform information- giving it
new meaning. Common understandings must occur if we are to work successfully together
in our workplace and community. Our social context provides our language and the other
artifacts of culture. Our environment shapes how we behave and affects how we feel and
we, in turn, shape our environment. While our lives have much continuity we also possess
great capacity to change.
The Personal Family models can be used in several ways. They can be used to moderate the
entire learning environment. We can use these models to enhance the personal qualities and
feelings of our students and to look for opportunities to make them partners with us and to
communicate affirmatively with them. We use nondirective techniques when we are
counseling the students, synectics to enhance creativity, classroom meetings to build the
community of learners.
Personal models have been adopted as a nondirective core of schools like A.S. Neil's
Summerhill, or as a major component of a school (Chamberlin and Chamberlin, 1943).
Certain approaches to teaching academic subjects have been developed around personal
models. The "experience" methods for teaching reading, for example, use student dictated
stories as the initial reading materials and student-selected literature as the chief materials
once initial competence has been established.
A major thesis of this family of models is that the better-developed, more affirmative, self
actualizing learners have increased learning capabilities. Thus, personal models will
increase academic achievement by tending to the learners. This thesis is supported by a
number of studies (Roebuck, Buhler, and Aspy, 1976) that indicate that the students of
teachers who incorporate personal models into their repertoires increase their achievement.
The personal family models begin with the perspective of the individual and allow teachers
to impact self awareness so that learners become responsible of their own growth. Self
actualization leads to lifelong learning skills that promote quality of life.
25
Nondirective Teaching
Developed from counseling theory the model brings student and teacher together in a
cooperative effort to guide the student to autonomy as a learner. The teacher acts as a guide
and facilitator providing coaching assistance where necessary. The model has several
applications: students may work in a laissez faire program and decide what they will learn
next and why. The model may be used in conjunction with other models to insure that the
teacher maintains contact as a guide for the student. It is a useful tool when students are
planning independent or cooperative learning. It is also valuable in advisory programs to
help students understand what they are thinking and feeling.
Synectics
A brainstorming tool that feeds creativity and allows students to escape the bounds of their
thinking and gain new perspective and a new framework for thinking. The model
encourages rapport and warmth among participants and creates excitement as students learn
to use it independently and in cooperative efforts.
Awareness Training
Useful in helping students to understand themselves. The strategies lend to reflection about
interpersonal relationships, self image, and presentation of self.
The social models combine a belief about learning and a belief about society. The belief
about learning is that cooperative behavior is stimulating not only socially but also
intellectually and, hence, that tasks requiring social interaction will stimulate learning. The
belief about society is that a central role of education is to prepare citizens to perpetuate a
democratic social order.
The combination of these two beliefs has resulted in the development of a large number of
models that have great potential for our teaching repertoires. Also, many of the social
theorists have not only built rationales for their models, but have raised serious questions
about the adequacy of the current dominant patterns of schooling. In most schools the
majority of learning tasks are structured by teachers for individuals. Most interaction
between teachers and students is in the pattern of recitation-the teacher directs questions
26
about what has been studied, calls on an individual who responds, and then affirms the
response or corrects it (Sirotnik, 1983).
Many developers of the cooperative learning models believe that they have developed
important additions to the storehouse of models and that teacher-dominated recitation is
actually bad for society. The social models received much attention in the 1930s and 1940s,
when a number of studies were conducted of the effects of the schools that used
democratic-process models as their cores. Many of the studies were in response to serious
questions raised by concerned citizens about whether such a degree of reliance on social
purposes would retard the students' academic development. The studies generally indicated
that social and academic goals are not at all incompatible. The students from those schools
were not disadvantaged; in many respects they outperformed the others (Chamberlin and
Chamberlin, 1943).
Recently, interest has been renewed in research on the cooperative learning models.
Sophisticated research procedures used by three groups of researchers, Johnson and
Johnson, (1974, 1981), Robert Slavin (1983) and Sharan of Israel (1980), have implications
for the entire family of models. The Johnsons and Slavin have studied whether cooperative
tasks and reward structures affect learning outcomes positively. Also, they have asked
whether group cohesion, cooperative behavior, and intergroup relations are improved
through cooperative learning procedures. In some of their investigations they have
examined the effects of cooperative task and reward structures on "traditional" learning
tasks, in which students are presented with material to master. The evidence is largely
affirmative. Classrooms organized so that students work in pairs and larger groups, tutor
each other, and share rewards are characterized by greater mastery of material than the
common individual-study and recitation pattern. Also, the shared responsibility and
interaction produce more positive feelings toward tasks and others, generate better
intergroup relations, and result in better self-images for students with histories of poor
achievement. In other words, the results generally affirm the assumptions that underlie
these models.
Sharan's team has confirmed the results of the Johnson and Slavin teams, but it has also
learned that the stronger the model implemented-the more that cooperative endeavor
replaced directive recitation and individual study-the more positive the results. He has also
demonstrated that cooperative learning is appropriate for a broad range of learning
objectives: the "basic skills" as well as the more complex cognitive and social goals of
schooling.
An exciting use of the social models is in combination with models from the other families,
in an effort to combine the effects of several models. For example, Baveja, Showers, and
27
Joyce (1985) conducted a study in which concept and inductive procedures were carried out
in cooperative groups. The effects fulfilled the promise of the marriage of the information-
processing and social models, and the treatment generated gains twice those of a
comparison group that received intensive individual and group tutoring over the same
material.
Group Investigation
Based on John Dewey's insistence that the principles of democracy be imparted in the
everyday classroom experience, this model encourages cooperative inquiry into social and
academic problems. Teachers facilitate students in group work that incorporates the
scientific methodology for research. The strategy yields high academic and affective gains.
Role Playing
Students gain new insights into social problems and concerns as they act out conflicts,
assume roles different from their own and feel the difference. Especially valuable in the
social sciences and cultural studies it has found recent exciting use in science classes as
well.
Jurisprudential Inquiry
Utilizes the case study method of law to explore social problems and policy. Students
identify the problem, look at various options and come to understand policy formulation.
Applicable in all subjects as most are impacted by policy.
Behavioral models of learning and instruction have their origins in the classical
conditioning experiments of Pavlov (1927), the work of Thorndike on reward learning
(1909, 1911, 1913), and the studies of Watson and his associates (Watson, 1916; Watson
and Rayner, 1921), who applied Pavlovian principles to the psychological disorders of
human beings. In the past twenty years behavior (learning) theory, systematically applied in
school settings, has been greatly influenced by B. F. Skinner's Science and Human
Behavior (1953) and J. Wolpe's Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition (1958).
In the late 1950s educators began to employ behavioral techniques, particularly forms of
contingency management and programmed learning materials, in school settings. For some
types of learners these have had great success. For example, some youngsters who
28
previously had made no progress in language development and social learning are now
trainable, and often able to mix with normal individuals. Milder forms of learning problems
have responded to behavior models as well (Becker, 1977, 1980, 1981.)
During the past ten years there has been an impressive amount of research demonstrating
the effectiveness of behavioral techniques with a wide range of problems, from phobias to
social skill deficits, behavioral problems, and test anxiety. The research also indicates that
these procedures can be used effectively in group settings and by laypeople. Behavior
theory offers an array of procedures that are extremely useful to teachers and curriculum
planners.
The educator who understands the impact of environmental variables and relationships can
apply the findings directly to his or her work-changing student behavior. The leverage of
external control can also be given to the individual. If the teacher can, by appropriate
techniques, ascertain and control the external variables, so can the student. Thus, what
appears at first to be a technique for controlling others increasing their capabilities for self-
control. These tools have proven quite effective in the area of Exceptional Education, but
are not limited in their effect to that realm.
Many people have assumed, quite erroneously, that many children have "blocks to
learning" (internal states that cannot be changed). Yet in recent years, we have seen
numerous examples of growth through the systematic application of learning principles.
Other more typical, but frustrating, behavioral problems of normal children have been
handled successfully with behavioral techniques.
The Contingency Management Model is widely used with students who have major
learning and behavior problems. However, many school administrators now believe it is
essential for all teachers to possess, the knowledge and skills of this model, which they
regard as the heart of objective classroom management. Knowing how to conceptualize and
describe behavior In discrete, observable terms, noticing when and under what conditions it
usually occurs, identifying more appropriate behaviors and suitable reinforcers, and finally
instituting a reinforcement program may soon be standard requirements for many teachers.
Programmed instruction, a variant of contingency management, has found its way into
numerous basic skills curricula in reading and math. The approach is thought to be
important to youngsters who need a high degree of success and immediate reinforcement or
feedback about their progress. The training model relies on modeling through observation
and practice as the means of obtaining new behaviors or eliminating old ones, although it
also uses stimulus control and feedback.
29
Many educators, believe that one purpose of schooling is to increase students' self-esteem
and life skills. These models offer one way of addressing preventive mental health as well
as basic intellectual knowledge and skills. In many classrooms the primary instructional
objective is to get the student to respond to a subject-matter stimulus. The learner connects
appropriate responses to various stimuli. The football player fires off the line on the
appropriate count. The child 'udders' the word 'cow' when a flashcard with the letters is
displayed. Stimulus discrimination is particularly important in the learning situation. When
we respond differently to different stimuli, we are distinguishing or discriminating between
their properties. Most subject matter is brought to control behavior through discrimination
training.
Mastery Learning
Material for learning is arranged from simple to complex. Material is presented to the
learner as an individual through appropriate materials. Students maintain their own pace as
they master or remediate the information.
Direct Instruction
Information is fed by the teacher or media and the learner responds in lockstep fashion.
Repeating the information of responding to the stimuli with the appropriate response.
Choral responses in language labs are an example.
Assertive Training
Leads to honest and open communication in the classroom. Students learn how to reveal
their feelings without harming or necessarily offending others. A productive classroom is
the end result.
References:
Top of Page
30
31