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Financial Markets and Institutions

11th Edition
by Jeff Madura

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Pendekatan Analisa Fundamental

• Analisa yang dilakukan dimulai


dari analisa makroekonomi dan
Top Down bagaimana dampaknya terhadap
profitabilitas industri/perusahaan.

• Analisa yang dimulai dari level


perusahaan, kemudian membuat
Bottom-up analisa indsutri dan dampaknya
bagi perekonomian keseluruhan.

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SIKLUS BISNIS

TAHAP AWAL
• Tingkat pertumbuhan masih rendah,
• Harga yang ditawarkan masih tinggi karena belum tercapainya skala ekonomi,
• Tingkat investasi yang dibutuhkan untuk mengembangkan produknya tinggi,
• Resiko kegagalan tinggi.
TAHAP EKSPANSI
• Tingkat pertumbuhan kencang,
• Tingkat persaingan yang terbatas dikarenakan permintann yang pesat yang mampu
mengakomodasi semuar perusahaan yang terlibat,
• Harga yang ditawarkan menurun, namun profit meningkat,
• Resiko kegagalan mulai berkurang
TAHAP PENDEWASAAN PERTUMBUHAN
Tahap yang ditandai dengan pertumbuhan yang mulai melambat dan pasar sudah mendekati titik jenuh.
Pada tahap ini pengaruh perkembangan ekonomi sangat kental. Usia perusahaan di tahap ini sudah
jangka panjang
TAHAP PENURUNAN
Pertumbuhan bersifat stagnan, penurunan permintaan. Tahapan ini bisa diperlambat dengan berinovasi

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FAKTOR – FAKTOR EKSTERNAL PADA SUATU INDUSTRI

Technology

Demografi
Growth,
Profit,
Risk

Kebijakan
Pemerintah

Pengaruh Makroekonomi
Sosial
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METODE VALUASI SAHAM

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5
PRICE MULTIPLE APPROACH

Formula P/E Ratio:

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PRICE MULTIPLE APPROACH

Formula P/E Ratio:

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Critique of Price Multiples

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Dividend Discount Model (DDM)

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Dividend Discount Model (DDM)

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Dividend Discount Model (DDM)

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Required Rate of Return on Stocks

Capital Asset Pricing Model


 Sometimes used to estimate the required rate of return untuk
perusahaan apa pun dengan saham yang diperdagangkan secara
publik.
 Satu-satunya risiko penting perusahaan adalah systematic risk.
 Suggests that the return of a stock (Rj) is influenced by the prevailing
risk-free rate (Rf), the market return (Rm), and the beta (Bj):

Rj = Rf + Bj(Rm – Rf)

where Bj is measured as the covariance between Rj and Rm, yang


mencerminkan sensitivitas aset terhadap pergerakan pasar saham
umum.

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Required Rate of Return on Stocks

Capital Asset Pricing Model (Cont.)


 Estimating the Market Risk Premium
 The yield on newly issued Treasury bonds is biasa digunakan sebagai
proksi untuk risk-free rate.
 The term, (Rm – Rf), is the market risk premium: the return of the
market melebihi risk-free rate.
 Data historis selama 30 tahun atau lebih dapat digunakan untuk
menentukan rata-rata market risk premium dari waktu ke waktu.
 Estimating the Firm’s Beta - biasanya diukur dengan
menerapkan analisis regresi untuk menentukan sensitivitas
pengembalian aset terhadap pengembalian pasar berdasarkan
data bulanan atau triwulanan.
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Factors that Affect Stock Prices

Economic Factors
 Impact of Economic Growth (Exhibit 11.1)
 An increase in economic growth is diharapkan untuk
meningkatkan permintaan akan produk dan layanan yang
dihasilkan oleh perusahaan dan dengan demikian meningkatkan
arus kas dan penilaian perusahaan.
 Impact of Interest Rates
 Diberi pilihan risk-free Treasury securities or stocks, investor
harus membeli saham hanya jika harganya sesuai untuk
mencerminkan pengembalian yang diharapkan cukup tinggi di atas
risk-free rate.
 Interest rates umumnya meningkat sebagai respons terhadap
peningkatan pertumbuhan ekonomi.
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Factors that Affect Stock Prices

Economic Factors (Cont.)


 Impact of the Dollar’s Exchange Rate Value
 Foreign investors prefer to purchase U.S. stocks ketika dolar
lemah dan menjualnya saat dolar mendekati puncaknya.
 Stock prices juga dipengaruhi oleh dampak perubahan nilai
dolar pada arus kas (cashflow).
 Stock prices of U.S. companies juga dapat dipengaruhi oleh
nilai tukar jika peserta pasar saham mengukur kinerja dengan
laba yang dilaporkan.
 Perubahan nilai dolar juga dapat mempengaruhi harga saham
dengan memengaruhi ekspektasi faktor ekonomi yang
memengaruhi kinerja perusahaan.
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Factors that Affect Stock Prices

Market-Related Factors
 Investor Sentiment
 Merupakan mood umum investor di pasar saham (stock
market).
 January Effect
 Manajer portofolio lebih suka berinvestasi di saham kecil
yang berisiko, di awal tahun dan kemudian beralih ke
perusahaan besar yang lebih stabil di dekat akhir tahun
untuk mengunci keuntungan mereka.
 Kecenderungan ini menempatkan tekanan ke atas pada
saham kecil di Januari setiap tahun.
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Factors that Affect Stock Prices

Firm-Specific Factors
 Change in Dividend Policy
 An increase in dividends dapat mencerminkan ekspektasi
perusahaan bahwa akan lebih mudah membayar dividen.

 Earnings Surprises
 Ketika laba perusahaan yang diumumkan lebih tinggi dari
yang diharapkan, beberapa investor menaikkan perkiraan
mereka tentang arus kas masa depan perusahaan dan
karenanya menilai kembali stock upward.

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Factors that Affect Stock Prices

Firm-Specific Factors (Cont.)


 Acquisitions and Divestitures
 Akuisisi yang diharapkan dari suatu perusahaan biasanya menghasilkan
peningkatan permintaan untuk saham target, yang menaikkan harganya.
 Expectations
 Berusaha mengantisipasi kebijakan baru sehingga mereka dapat
bergerak di pasar sebelum investor lain.

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Factors that Affect Stock Prices

Tax Effects
 Differences in tax laws for short-term vs. long-term capital
gains memengaruhi arus kas pajak setelah pajak yang diterima
investor dari penjualan saham.
 Tax laws menyebabkan beberapa saham lebih diinginkan
daripada yang lain. ie. Dividend vs. non-dividend paying

Integration of Factors Affecting Stock Prices


 Setiap kali indikator menandakan ekspektasi suku bunga yang
lebih tinggi, ada tekanan ke atas pada pengembalian yang
dibutuhkan oleh investor dan tekanan ke bawah pada nilai
perusahaan. (Exhibit 11.2)

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Exhibit 11.2 Framework for Explaining Changes in
a Firm’s Stock Price over Time

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Stock Risk

Pengembalian dari investasi dalam saham selama


periode tertentu diukur sebagai
( SP  INV )  D
R
INV
where INV  initial investment
D  dividend
SP  selling price of the stock

The risk of a stock can be measured by using its price volatility,


its beta, and the value-at-risk method.

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Stock Risk

Volatility of a Stock or total risk berfungsi sebagai


ukuran risiko karena dapat menunjukkan tingkat
ketidakpastian seputar pengembalian saham di masa
depan.
 Using Standard Deviation to forecast Stock Price
Volatility
 Using the historical method: a historical period digunakan
untuk mendapatkan standar deviasi pengembalian saham,
dan estimasi tersebut kemudian digunakan sebagai
perkiraan di masa mendatang.

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Stock Risk

Volatility of a Stock (cont.)


 Using Volatility Patterns to memprediksi Stock Price
Volatility
 A time series trend diterapkan pada standar deviasi untuk
memperhitungkan perubahan tren ekonomi selama periode
sebelumnya.
 Using Implied Volatility to memprediksi Stock Price
Volatility
 Derive a stock’s implied standard deviation from a stock option
pricing model.

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Stock Risk

Volatility of a Stock (Cont.)


 Volatility of a Stock Portfolio - The portfolio’s volatility can
be measured by the standard deviation:

n n
 p  w   w    wi w j i j CORRij
2
i i
2 2
j
2
j
i 1 j 1

where
 i  standard deviation of returns of the ith stock
 j  standard deviation of returns of the jth stock
CORRij  correlatio n coefficien t between th e ith and jth stocks
wi  proportion of funds invested in the ith stock
w j  proportion of funds invested in the jth stock
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Stock Risk

Beta of a Stock - measures the sensitivity of its returns


to market (Exhibit 11.4)
 Beta of a Stock Portfolio can be measured as the weighted
average of the betas of stocks yang membentuk portofolio

 p   wi  i
 High-beta stocks diperkirakan relatif stabil karena mereka
lebih sensitif terhadap pengembalian pasar dari waktu ke
waktu. Likewise, low-beta stocks diperkirakan akan kurang
stabil karena mereka kurang responsif terhadap
pengembalian pasar.
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Exhibit 11.4 How Beta Influences Probability
Distributions

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Stock Risk

Value at Risk
 Memperkirakan kerugian terbesar yang diperkirakan untuk
posisi investasi tertentu untuk tingkat kepercayaan tertentu.
 Dimaksudkan untuk memperingatkan investor tentang
potensi kerugian maksimum yang bisa terjadi
 Biasa digunakan untuk memperkirakan risiko suatu
portofolio

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Stock Risk

Value at Risk (cont.)


 Application Using Historical Returns
 E.g. seorang investor dapat menentukan bahwa dari
perdagangan 100 hari perdagangan terakhir, sebuah saham
mengalami penurunan lebih besar dari 7 persen pada 5
hari yang berbeda.
 Investor dapat menyimpulkan kerugian harian maksimum
tidak lebih dari 7 persen untuk saham tersebut berdasarkan
tingkat kepercayaan 95 persen.

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Stock Risk

Value at Risk (cont.)


 Application Using the Standard Deviation
 measure the standard deviation of daily returns selama
periode sebelumnya
 kemudian menerapkannya untuk mendapatkan batas untuk
tingkat kepercayaan tertentu.

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Stock Risk

Value at Risk (cont.)


 Application Using Beta - Metode ketiga dalam
memperkirakan kerugian maksimum yang diharapkan untuk
tingkat kepercayaan yang diberikan adalah dengan
menerapkan beta saham.
 Deriving the Maximum Dollar Loss - Setelah persentase
kerugian maksimum untuk tingkat kepercayaan tertentu
ditentukan, itu dapat diterapkan untuk memperoleh kerugian
dolar maksimum dari investasi tertentu.

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Stock Risk

Value at Risk (cont.)


 Application to a Stock Portfolio - Tiga metode dapat digunakan untuk
mendapatkan kerugian maksimum yang diharapkan dari portofolio saham
untuk tingkat kepercayaan tertentu.
 Adjusting the Investment Horizon Desired – Metode yang sama dapat
diterapkan selama seminggu atau sebulan
 Adjusting the Length of the Historical Period - Jika kondisi telah berubah
sedemikian rupa sehingga hanya hari-hari terakhir yang mencerminkan
keadaan umum kondisi pasar, maka hari-hari tersebut harus digunakan.
 Limitations of the Value-at-Risk Method - Manajer portofolio mungkin
menggunakan periode historis yang relatif tenang ketika menilai
kemungkinan risiko di masa depan.

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Risk-Adjusted Stock Performance

Sharpe Index
The reward-to-variability ratio, or Sharpe Index, measures risk-
adjusted returns when total variability adalah ukuran risiko
yang paling tepat.
R  Rf
Sharpe Index 

where R  average return on the stock
R f  average risk - free rate
  standard deviation of the stock' s return
Indeks ini mengukur kelebihan pengembalian di atas tingkat
bebas risiko per unit risiko.
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Risk-Adjusted Stock Performance

Treynor Index
The Treynor Index measures risk-adjusted returns when beta
adalah ukuran risiko yang paling tepat.

R  Rf
Treynor Index 

where R  average return on the stock
R f  average risk - free rate
  stock' s beta

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Stock Market Efficiency

Forms of Efficiency
 Weak-Form Efficiency - menyarankan bahwa harga
sekuritas mencerminkan semua informasi yang berhubungan
dengan pasar, seperti pergerakan harga sekuritas historis dan
volume perdagangan sekuritas.
 Semistrong-Form Efficiency - menunjukkan bahwa harga
keamanan sepenuhnya mencerminkan semua informasi
publik, seperti pengumuman perusahaan, berita ekonomi,
atau berita politik.
 Strong-Form Efficiency - menunjukkan bahwa harga
keamanan sepenuhnya mencerminkan semua informasi,
termasuk informasi pribadi atau orang dalam.
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Stock Market Efficiency

Tests of the Efficient Market Hypothesis


 Test of Weak-Form Efficiency - Weak-form efficiency telah
diuji dengan mencari pola nonrandom dalam harga
keamanan.
 Test of Semistrong-Form Efficiency - Semistrong-form
efficiency telah diuji dengan menilai bagaimana
pengembalian keamanan menyesuaikan dengan pengumuman
tertentu.
 Test of Strong-Form Efficiency - Tests of strong-form
efficiency sulit karena informasi orang dalam yang
digunakan tidak tersedia untuk umum dan tidak dapat diuji
dengan benar.
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Foreign Stock Valuation and Performance

Valuation of Foreign Stocks


 Price–Earnings Method
 Laba per saham yang diharapkan dikalikan dengan rasio PE
(berdasarkan risiko perusahaan dan industri lokal) untuk
menentukan harga saham.
 Rasio PE untuk suatu industri dapat berubah, terutama ketika
industri terdiri dari beberapa perusahaan.
 Nilai yang diperoleh dengan metode ini adalah dalam mata
uang asing setempat.
 Dividend Discount Model - dapat diterapkan dengan
mendiskontokan aliran dividen yang diharapkan sambil
menyesuaikan ke akun untuk pergerakan nilai tukar yang
diharapkan.
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Foreign Stock Valuation and Performance

International Market Efficiency


 Beberapa pasar asing cenderung tidak efisien karena sejumlah
kecil analis dan manajer portofolio dapat memantau saham.

Measuring Performance from Investing in Foreign Stocks


 Pengembalian dari berinvestasi di saham asing paling tepat
diukur dalam hal tujuan investor.

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Foreign Stock Valuation and Performance

Performance from Global Diversification


 Penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa investor dalam saham
dapat memperoleh manfaat dengan melakukan diversifikasi
internasional.
 Diversification among Emerging Stock Markets:
 Korelasi antara saham di berbagai negara rendah, sehingga investor
dapat mengurangi risiko dengan memasukkan beberapa saham dari
pasar ini ke dalam portofolionya.

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SUMMARY

 Stocks biasanya dinilai menggunakan price–earnings (PE) method,


the dividend discount model, or the free cash flow model.
 The PE method menerapkan rasio PE industri terhadap pendapatan
perusahaan untuk mendapatkan nilainya.
 The dividend discount model memperkirakan nilai tersebut sebagai
nilai sekarang dari dividen yang akan datang.
 The free cash flow model didasarkan pada nilai sekarang dari arus
kas masa depan.
 When applying the free cash flow model to value a stock, a required
rate of return harus diperkirakan. One method of estimating the
required rate of return is to apply the capital asset pricing model,
dimana required return tergantung pada risk-free interest rate and the
firm’s beta.
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SUMMARY(Cont.)

 Stock prices dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor yang


mempengaruhi future cash flows or the required rate of
return by investors. Economic conditions, market conditions,
and firm-specific conditions can affect a firm’s cash flows or
the required rate of return.
 The risk of a stock is measured by its volatility, its beta, or its
value-at-risk estimate. Investor memberikan lebih banyak
perhatian pada pengukuran risiko mengingat penurunan
tajam harga beberapa saham dalam beberapa tahun terakhir.

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SUMMARY(Cont.)

 Efisiensi pasar saham menyiratkan bahwa harga saham


mencerminkan semua informasi yang tersedia.
 Weak-form efficiency menunjukkan bahwa harga sekuritas
mencerminkan semua informasi terkait perdagangan, seperti
pergerakan harga sekuritas historis dan volume perdagangan
sekuritas.
 Semistrong-form efficiency menunjukkan bahwa harga keamanan
sepenuhnya mencerminkan semua informasi publik.
 Strong-form efficiency menunjukkan bahwa harga keamanan
sepenuhnya mencerminkan semua informasi, termasuk informasi
pribadi atau orang dalam.
 Bukti mendukung weak-form efficiency ke tingkat tertentu, tetapi
ada kurang dukungan untuk semistrong or strong-form efficiency.
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