YOGA ARIBOWO

1. PENDAHULUAN - DATA GEOKIMIA

2. ANALISIS DATA GEOKIMIA
3. UNSUR UTAMA
4. UNSUR JEJAK (TRACE ELEMENTS)
5. GEOKIMIA DAN LINGKUNGAN
TEKTONIK
6. ISOTOP RADIOGENIK
7. ISOTOP STABIL
Definisi:
Geokimia adalah suatu ilmu yang
mempelajari kimia bumi sebagai satu
keseluruhan dan bagian-bagiannya
Ilmu kimia bagaimana yang
dipelajari?
Studi geokimia berhubungan dengan
kelimpahan, penyebaran dan
perpindahan unsur-unsur kimia di
bumi dalam ruang dan waktu
Tujuan utama mempelajari geokimia adalah :

Untuk memerikan secara kuantitatif

komposisi kimia bumi dan bagian-
bagiannya

Untuk mengetahui aturan-aturan yang

mengontrol sebaran masing-masing
unsur
kajian utama Geokimia adalah

Untuk mendeterminasi secara relatif dan

absolut kelimpahan masing2 unsur dan
atom (unsur radioaktif atau isotop) di
dalam bumi (batuan dan fluida).
 PARTIKEL PENYUSUN MATERI/ZAT
 Partikel adalah sebuah satuan dasar dari
benda atau materi. Bisa juga dikatakan
Partikel merupakan satuan bagian
terkecil dari suatu materi.
 Jenis Partikel ini ada 3 yaitu: atom,
molekul, dan ion. Jadi baik atom, molekul,
dan ion ke tiga-nya merupakan satuan
terkecil dari materi yg secara umum
disebut partikel
 Atom adalah: Satuan terkecil dari suatu materi yang
terdiri atas inti, yang biasanya mengandung proton
(muatan+) dan neutron (netral), dan kulit yang berisi
muatan negatif yaitu elektron.
 Ada juga yang menyebutkan bahwa atom adalah
partikel penyusun unsur

Karakteristik atom:
 punya proton, neutron, elektron, (kecuali pd Hidrogen-
1, yg tidak memiliki neutron)
 punya jumlah proton dan elektron yang sama (jika tdk
sama disebut ion)
 atom2 yang punya karakteristik yang sama dinamakan
unsur
 unsuradalah nama untuk kumpulan /himpunan
atom yang punya karakter yang sama.

 Gabungan/ikatan
dari beberapa atom bukan
membentuk unsur tapi membentuk molekul.

 Molekul adalah: Gabungan dari beberapa

atom unsur, bisa dua atau lebih. Artinya ketika
berbicara molekul maka yang dibayangkan
adalah gabungan atom2 (bukan 1 atom).
Molekul adalah partikel terkecil dari suatu
unsur/senyawa
 Jika gabungan dari atom unsur yang sama
jenisnya maka disebut Molekul Unsur,
Contohnya: O2, H2, O3, S8
 Jika gabungan dari atom unsur yang berbeda
jenisnya maka disebut Molekul Senyawa,
Contohnya: H2O, CO2, C2H5

 Ionadalah: atom yang bermuatan listrik, ion

yang bermuatan listrik disebut kation, dan ion
yang bermuatan negatif disebut anion. Kation
dan anion dapat berupa ion tunggal hanya
terdiri dari satu jenis atom atau dapat pula
berupa ion poliatom mengandung dua atau
lebih atom yang berbeda.
DARI BERBAGAI TEORI YANG ADA, TEORI AWAL
PEMBENTUKAN ALAM SEMESTA, TATA SURYA DAN
BUMI YANG PALING DITERIMA HINGGA SAAT INI
ADALAH TEORI BIG BANG

 PADA SATU WAKTU, SELURUH MATERIAL DI ALAM

SEMESTA MENGUMPUL MENJADI SATU MASSA YANG
SANGAT PEJAL/PADAT/HIGH DENSITY, YANG TERSUSUN
OLEH PARTIKEL ELEMENTER, TAPI BELUM
MEMBENTUK UNSUR KIMIA
 LEDAKAN DAHSYAT INI MENGHAMBURKAN
MASSA YANG ULTRA PADAT BESERTA
ENERGI PANCARAN KE RUANG ANGKASA
 PROSES INI MENGHASILKAN
TERBENTUKNYA UNSUR KIMIA
 YANG MULA-MULA TERBENTUK ADALAH
HIDROGEN DAN HELIUM
 BIG BANG TERJADI ANTARA 10-13 MILIAR
TAHUN YANG LALU
 AKIBATNYA ALAM SEMESTA MENGEMBANG
DAN SAAT INI MASIH TERUS TERJADI
 Setelahbeberapa juta tahun,gaya berat mulai
mengumpulkan atom helium dan hidrogen, terpisah
dari partikel lain sehingga terbentuk apa yang
disebut sebagai primordial gas
 Gas ini menyebar ke seluruh alam semesta
 Akibat gaya berat, beberapa partikel gas primordial
tersebut saling tarik menarik dan berkumpul
(accreted)
 Semakin banyak massa terkumpul, maka akan
terbentuk massa yang semakin besar, terbentuk
proto galaksi
 Galaksi bisa berbentuk regular maupun irregular
 Bumi  bagian kecil dari galaksi-galaksi
tersebut, sama dengan planet lain dalam tata
surya

 Bumi terbentuk oleh proses kondensasi,

kontraksi dan akresi debu kosmik sisa big
bang yang terutama tersusun oleh H, He, O, Ni,
Si, Ca, Al, Na, K, Mg, C, S, dan Fe, serta unsur-
unsur lain dalam jumlah kecil

 Debu dan gas yang terlontar ini berputar,

sehingga makin tinggi suhunya, dan karena
gravitasi maka pusat rotasi akan semakin tinggi
kerapatannya (densitasnya)
 Karena kedudukannya yang tidak terlalu
dekat dan juga tidak terlalu jauh dari
matahari, maka kondisi di bumi tidak
terlalu panas dan juga tidak terlalu
dingin, sehingga memungkinkan
terdapatnya molekul H2O dalam tiga fasa
yang berbeda, yaitu gas, cair dan padat
 Magma Type: Ultramafic Mafic Intermediate Felsic
Temperature: 1550º to 1200º 1250º to 1050º 1150º to 950º 1050º to 800º
Viscosity: Low Low Intermediate High
Gas Content: Very Low (<<1%) Low (<1%) Intermed (1-3%) High (2-5%)

Typical Composition
(wt. %)
SiO2 46.5 50.0 57.7 70.5
TiO2 0.3 1.9 1.0 0.3
Al2O3 3.1 15.9 16.6 14.1
FeO 11.2 10.3 7.2 2.8
MnO 0.2 0.2 0.1 < 0.1
MgO 32.9 7.0 3.7 0.7
CaO 4.8 9.7 6.5 1.7
Na2O .1 2.9 3.4 3.6
K2O .01 1.1 1.8 3.9
P2O5 n.a. 0.3 0.3 0.1
Total 99.0 99.3 98.3 97.8
Trace Elements (ppm)
Cr 3000 200 10 2
Ni 1000 150 15 2
Ba 20 40 300 350
Zr 10 35 200 170
Viscosity increases with:
• SiO2 concentration
• decreasing temperature
• increasing crystallinity of magma
• decreasing volatile content (H2O, CO2, SO2, H2, HCl, Cl2, F2)
•GEOKIMIA EKSPLORASI (Tambang mineral/batuan)
•GEOKIMIA PANASBUMI
•GEOKIMIA HIDROKARBON
•GEOKIMIA AIRTANAH
•GEOKIMIA DATING
•GEOKIMIA KELIMPAHAN
 Outgassing
POST SOLIDUS Hydrothermal alteration
PROCESSES Weathering
metamorphism
Sea water
Ground water
chemistry
Fractional Crystalization
contamination

Fractional Crystalization
Assimilation + AFC
MAGMA CHAMBER
Magma mixing
PROCESSES
RTF process
Liquid immiscibility

Fractional Crystalization
Zone refining/contamination/reequilibration
Partial melting

SOURCE Tectonic setting

COMPOSITION Mixing

Figure 1.1 Flow diagram showing the principal processes which control the chemical
composition of igneous rocks.
 Pore water chemistry
Ground water chemistry
DIAGENESIS Burial history
Geothermal gradient

Subsidence rate
Biogenic processes
DEPOSITION
Chemical processes
(evaporation, weathering)

Hydraulic sorting
TRANSPORT
Residence time

Detrital material Mainly in solution

PHYSICAL WEATHERING CHEMICAL WEATHERING

WEATHERING
(Temperature/arctic climate, (Tropical climate, slow uplift)
Rapid uplift)

PROVENANCE
Tectonic setting
COMPOSITION

Figure 1.2 Flow diagram showing the principal processes which control the chemical
compositions of sedimentary rocks.
 METAMORPHIC
ROCK

Tectonic
mixing
PROTOLITH 2
Fluid-related processes
(hydration/dehydration Isochemical Solid diffusion
reactions) change (controlled by
Partial Element mobility temperature)
melting Fluid composition
Fluid/rock ratio

PROTOLITH

Figure 1.3 Flow diagram showing the principal processes which control the
chemical composition of metamorphic rocks
YOGA ARIBOWO
 Keberhasilan studi geokimia harus
didasarkan pada pemahaman yang
benar dari kondisi geologinya
 Data menjadi tidak berguna jika
hubungan antar sampel tidak diketahui
dan hubungan dengan geologi regional
tidak jelas
 Spatial distribution of the samples
(micro- to global scale)  spatial
distribution of geochemical data.
1. Major elements:
• The elements which predominate in any rock
analysis. They are Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na,
K and P.
• Unit : weight percent (wt.%) of oxides.
• The sum of major oxides will total to about
100%  as rough guide to its reliability.
• Iron  as FeO and Fe2O3, sometimes as “total
Fe” and given as either FeO (tot) or Fe2O3
(tot).
 Element Wt % Oxide Atom %
O 60.8
Si 59.3 21.2 Abundance of the elements
Al 15.3 6.4
Fe 7.5 2.2
in the Earth’s crust
Ca 6.9 2.6
Mg 4.5 2.4
Na 2.8 1.9

Major elements: usually greater than 1%

SiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MgO CaO Na2O K2O H2O
Minor elements: usually 0.1 - 1%
TiO2 MnO P2O5 CO2
2. Trace elements:
• The elements which are present at less than
0.1 % level.
• Unit : ppm (parts per million), more rarely ppb
(parts per billion. However, sometimes trace
elements exceed 0.1% cited.
• Some elements behave as a major element in
one group of rocks and as trace elements in
another group of rocks.
Example: K is major elements in rhyolites
(>4wt.%); but K is trace element in basalts
3. Volatiles:
• Volatiles such as H2O, CO2 and S are normally
included in major elements (unit: wt.%).
• H2O (water) is combined within lattice of silicate
minerals
• Water released above 110°C  H2O+
• Water present simply as dampness in rock
powder and driven off by heating below 110°C is
quoted as H2O-.
• The total of volatile contents by ignition at
1000°C is called as LOI (Loss of Ignition).
4. Isotopes:
a. Radiogenic isotopes
 Isotopes which decay spontaneously due to
natural radioactivity and those which are the
final daughter products of a such decay
scheme.
 Parent-daughter pairs: Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd,
U-Pb, Th-Pb and K-Ar.
 Expressed as ratio either in absolute terms
(e.g. 87Sr/86Sr) or a relative to a standard (the
ε–notation)
4. Isotopes:
b. Stable isotopes
 Naturally occurring isotopes of light
elements such as H, O, C and S which may be
fractionated on the basis of mass differences
between the isotopes of the elements.

 Example: Isotope 18O is 12.5 % heavier than

the isotope 16O and the two fractionated
during the evaporation of water.
 Expressed as ratios relative to a standard
(the ε–notation)
 Data quality is measured in terms of their
precision, accuracy and detection limit.
 Precision: the repeatability of a measurement. It is a
measure of the reproducibility and is determined
by making replicate measurements on the same
sample.
 Accuracy is about getting the right answer. It is an
estimate of how close our measured value is to the
true value. It is done by reference to recommended
values of international reference standards.
 Detection limit is the lowest concentration which
can be “seen” by a particular method.
 “ Precision and Accuracy ”

Precision : seberapa dekat, beberapa analisis yang berbeda dengan materi

dan metoda yang sama menghasilkan nilai yang hampir sama ≈
reproducibility, repeatability
Accuracy: ukuran seberapa dekat hasil pengukuran dengan nilai aktual
atau sebenarnya
 XRF  Major oxides & few trace elements
 INAA  Trace elements, REE, PGE
 ICP  most elements in periodic table (major, trace, REE)
 AAS  Major elements, trace elements (particularly
transition metals e.g. Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, etc.).
 MS (IDMS = Isotope dilution mass spectrometry; ICP-MS =
Inductively Couple Plasma Mass Spectrometry; SSMS =
Spark Source Mass Spectrometry).
• ICP-MS: Major, trace elements and isotopic analysis
(very low detection limit, good accuracy and precision).
 Electron microprobe analysis: major elements of minerals.
 Ion microprobe: SIMS = Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
 geochronology, stable isotope & trace elements.
 Depending on the nature of the problem
to be solved.
• What are the elements to be analyzed
• What are their concentration are
expected
• How precise the results need to be.
• How many samples are to be analyzed
• Budget !!!
 CONTAMINATION during preparation.
• Crushing & grinding (from previous prepared samples) or
grinding apparatus itself
• Eliminated by carefully cleaning
• Highest-precision analyses grinding should be carried out by in
agate
 CALIBRATION
• Calibrated relative to standard of known composition or to a
calibration curve.
• The standards used to construct curve should be ultra-pure
chemical reagents, well-analysed in house samples and
international reference samples.
 PEAK OVERLAP
• In most analyses (except MS), there is little attempt to separate
element to be analysed from the rest of rock or mineral sample.
• Thus there is possible interference of spectral lines/peak, so that
the value measured higher due to overlap from subsidiary peak of
another element present in the rock. The effect of the interferences
must be removed.
“Wet-chems”:
gravimetric/volumetric
 Modern Spectroscopic Techniques

Figure 8.1. The geometry of typical spectroscopic instruments. From Winter (2001) An Introduction to
Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
 A typical rock analysis
Wt. % Oxides to Atom % Conversion
Oxide Wt. % Mol Wt. Atom prop Atom %
SiO 2 49.20 60.09 0.82 12.25
TiO2 1.84 95.90 0.02 0.29
Al 2O3 15.74 101.96 0.31 4.62
Fe2O3 3.79 159.70 0.05 0.71
FeO 7.13 71.85 0.10 1.48
MnO 0.20 70.94 0.00 0.04
MgO 6.73 40.31 0.17 2.50
CaO 9.47 56.08 0.17 2.53
Na2O 2.91 61.98 0.09 1.40
K 2O 1.10 94.20 0.02 0.35
H2O+ 0.95 18.02 0.11 1.58
(O) 4.83 72.26
Total 99.06 6.69 100.00

Must multiply by # of cations in oxide 

 Table 8-3. Chemical analyses of some
representative igneous rocks
Peridotite Basalt Andesite Rhyolite Phonolite
SiO2 42.26 49.20 57.94 72.82 56.19
TiO2 0.63 1.84 0.87 0.28 0.62
Al2O3 4.23 15.74 17.02 13.27 19.04
Fe2O3 3.61 3.79 3.27 1.48 2.79
FeO 6.58 7.13 4.04 1.11 2.03
MnO 0.41 0.20 0.14 0.06 0.17
MgO 31.24 6.73 3.33 0.39 1.07
CaO 5.05 9.47 6.79 1.14 2.72
Na2O 0.49 2.91 3.48 3.55 7.79
K2O 0.34 1.10 1.62 4.30 5.24
H2O+ 3.91 0.95 0.83 1.10 1.57

Total 98.75 99.06 99.3 99.50 99.23

How do we display chemical data in a meaningful way?
Bivariate
(x-y)
diagram
s
Harker
diagram
for
Crater
Lake

Figure 8.2. Harker variation

diagram for 310 analyzed
volcanic rocks from Crater Lake
(Mt. Mazama), Oregon
Cascades. Data compiled by
Rick Conrey (personal
communication).
Bivariate
(x-y)
diagram
s
Harker
diagram
for
Crater
Lake

Figure 8.2. Harker variation

diagram for 310 analyzed
volcanic rocks from Crater Lake
(Mt. Mazama), Oregon
Cascades. Data compiled by
Rick Conrey (personal
communication).
Example: AFM
diagram
(alkalis-FeO*-MgO)

Figure 8.3. AFM diagram for

Crater Lake volcanics, Oregon
Cascades. Data compiled by
Rick Conrey (personal
communication).
 Jelaskan
manfaat analisis senyawa oksida
utama, bagaimana caranya, dan senyawa
apa yang digunakan?
 Table 8-5 . Chemical analyses (wt. %) of a
hypothetical set of related volcanics.

Oxide B BA A D RD R
SiO2 50.2 54.3 60.1 64.9 66.2 71.5
TiO2 1.1 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.3
Al2O3 14.9 15.7 16.1 16.4 15.3 14.1
Fe2O3* 10.4 9.2 6.9 5.1 5.1 2.8
MgO 7.4 3.7 2.8 1.7 0.9 0.5
CaO 10.0 8.2 5.9 3.6 3.5 1.1
Na 2O 2.6 3.2 3.8 3.6 3.9 3.4
K2O 1.0 2.1 2.5 2.5 3.1 4.1
LOI 1.9 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.2 1.4
Total 99.5 99.2 100.6 100.0 99.7 99.2
B = basalt, BA = basaltic andesite, A = andesite, D = dacite,
RD = rhyo-dacite, R = rhyolite. Data from Ragland (1989)
Harker diagram
• Smooth trends
• Model with 3 assumptions:
1 Rocks are related
2 Trends = liquid line of
descent
3 The basalt is the parent
magma from which the
others are derived

Figure 8.7. Stacked variation diagrams of

hypothetical components X and Y (either
weight or mol %). P = parent, D =
daughter, S = solid extract, A, B, C =
possible extracted solid phases. For
explanation, see text. From Ragland
(1989). Basic Analytical Petrology, Oxford
Univ. Press.
 Extrapolate BA  B and
further to low SiO2
 K2O is first element to 
0 (at SiO2 = 46.5)

46.5% SiO2 is interpreted

to be the concentration in
the bulk solid extract and
the blue line  the
concentration of all other
oxides
Figure 8.7. Stacked variation diagrams of
hypothetical components X and Y (either
weight or mol %). P = parent, D =
daughter, S = solid extract, A, B, C =
possible extracted solid phases. For
explanation, see text. From Ragland
(1989). Basic Analytical Petrology, Oxford
Univ. Press.
 Extrapolate the other curves
back BA  B  blue line and
read off X of mineral extract

Results:
Remove plagioclase, olivine,
pyroxene and Fe-Ti oxide

Oxide Wt% Cation Norm

SiO2 46.5 ab 18.3

TiO2 1.4 an 30.1
Al2O3 14.2 di 23.2
Fe2O3* 11.5 hy 4.7
MgO 10.8 ol 19.3
CaO 11.5 mt 1.7
Na2O 2.1 il 2.7
K2O 0
Total 98.1 100
Then repeat for each increment BA  A etc.
Can chemistry be used to distinguish
families of magma types?
Early on it was recognized that some
chemical parameters were very useful
in regard to distinguishing magmatic
groups

• Total Alkalis (Na2O + K2O)

• Silica (SiO2) and silica saturation
• Alumina (Al2O3)
Alkali vs. Silica diagram for Hawaiian volcanics:
Seems to be two distinct groupings: alkaline and subalkaline

Figure 8.11. Total

alkalis vs. silica
diagram for the alkaline
and sub-alkaline rocks
of Hawaii. After
MacDonald (1968).
GSA Memoir 116
AFM diagram: can further subdivide the subalkaline
magma series into a tholeiitic and a calc-alkaline series

Figure 8.14. AFM diagram showing the distinction

between selected tholeiitic rocks from Iceland, the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, the Columbia River Basalts, and Hawaii
(solid circles) plus the calc-alkaline rocks of the
Cascade volcanics (open circles). From Irving and
Baragar (1971). After Irvine and Baragar (1971). Can.
J. Earth Sci., 8, 523-548.
Figure 18.2. Alumina saturation classes based on the molar proportions of Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O) (“A/CNK”)
after Shand (1927). Common non-quartzo-feldspathic minerals for each type are included. After Clarke (1992).
Granitoid Rocks. Chapman Hall.
Figure 8.10
a. Plot of CaO (green) and (Na2O +
K2O) (red) vs. SiO2 for the Crater
Lake data. Peacock (1931) used the
value of SiO2 at which the two curves
crossed as his “alkali-lime index”
(dashed line).
b. Alumina saturation indices (Shand,
1927) with analyses of the
peraluminous granitic rocks from the
Achala Batholith, Argentina (Lira and
Kirschbaum, 1990). In S. M. Kay and
C. W. Rapela (eds.), Plutonism from
Antarctica to Alaska. Geol. Soc.
Amer. Special Paper, 241. pp. 67-76.
 A world-wide survey suggests that there may be
some important differences between the three series

Characteristic Plate Margin Within Plate

Series Convergent Divergent Oceanic Continental
Alkaline yes yes yes
Tholeiitic yes yes yes yes
Calc-alkaline yes

After Wilson (1989). Igneous Petrogenesis. Unwin Hyman - Kluwer

TRACE ELEMENTS
 Magma Type: Ultramafic Mafic Intermediate Felsic
Temperature: 1550º to 1200º 1250º to 1050º 1150º to 950º 1050º to 800º
Viscosity: Low Low Intermediate High
Gas Content: Very Low (<<1%) Low (<1%) Intermed (1-3%) High (2-5%)

Typical Composition
(wt. %)
SiO2 46.5 50.0 57.7 70.5
TiO2 0.3 1.9 1.0 0.3
Al2O3 3.1 15.9 16.6 14.1
FeO 11.2 10.3 7.2 2.8
MnO 0.2 0.2 0.1 < 0.1
MgO 32.9 7.0 3.7 0.7
CaO 4.8 9.7 6.5 1.7
Na2O .1 2.9 3.4 3.6
K2O .01 1.1 1.8 3.9
P2O5 n.a. 0.3 0.3 0.1
Total 99.0 99.3 98.3 97.8
Trace Elements (ppm)
Cr 3000 200 10 2
Ni 1000 150 15 2
Ba 20 40 300 350
Zr 10 35 200 170
Trace elements:
• The elements which are present at less than
0.1 % level.
• Unit : ppm (parts per million), more rarely ppb
(parts per billion. However, sometimes trace
elements exceed 0.1% cited.
• Some elements behave as a major element in
one group of rocks and as trace elements in
another group of rocks.
Example: K is major elements in rhyolites
(>4wt.%); but K is trace element in basalts
 KLASIFIKASI (Mc Donough and Sun, 1995)

Siderophile –iron related

-Refractory : Mo, Ru, Rh, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt
-Transitional: Fe, Co, Ni, Pd
-Moderately volatile: P, Cu,Ga, Ge, As, Ag, Sb, Au
-Highly volatile : Tl, Bi
Chalcophile –sulphides related
-Highly volatile: S, Sc, Cd, In, Sn, Te, Hg, Pb
Lithophile – silicates related
-Refractory: Be, Al, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, REE, Hf, Ta,
Th, U
-Transitional: Mg, Si, Cr
-Moderately volatile: Li, B, Na, K, Mn, Rb, Cs
-Highly volatile: F, Cl, Br, I, Zn
Trace elemen yang penting:

Base metal: Cu, Ni, Zn, Cd, Mn, Pb, Sn

Precious metal: Pt, Au, Ag, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir
 Trace Elements

Figure 9-1. Harker Diagram for Crater Lake. From data

compiled by Rick Conrey. From Winter (2001) An Introduction
to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
Aplikasi Trace Elements pada batuan
beku
1.Mengidentifikasi proses diferensiasi magma:
fraksionasi kristal, pelelehan parsial, asimilasi
dsb
 2. Indikator petrogenesis
Element Use as a petrogenetic indicator
Ni, Co, Cr Ni dan Co terkonsentrasi pada olivin, Cr pada spinel dan klinopiroksen, konsentrasi tinggi
Indikasi mantle source.

V, Ti Memiliki sifat fraksionasi kuat menjadi Fe-Ti oxides (ilmenite or titanomagnetite). Jika tidak
Ti mungkin terfraksionasi menjadi sphene atau rutile.

Zr, Hf Very incompatible elements that do not substitute into major silicate phases (although they may
replace Ti in sphene or rutile).

Ba, Rb Incompatible element that substitutes for K in K-feldspar, micas, or hornblende. Rb substitutes
less readily in hornblende than K-spar and micas, such that the K/Ba ratio may distinguish these
phases.

Sr Substitutes for Ca in plagioclase (but not in pyroxene), and, to a lesser extent, for K in K-
feldspar. Behaves as a compatible element at low pressure where plagioclase forms early, but
as an incompatible at higher pressure where plagioclase is no longer stable.

REE Garnet accommodates the HREE more than the LREE, and orthopyroxene and hornblende do
so to a lesser degree. Sphene and plagioclase accommodates more LREE. Eu is strongly
partitioned into plagioclase.

Y Commonly incompatible (like HREE). Strongly partitioned into garnet and amphibole. Sphene
and apatite also concentrate Y, so the presence of these as accessories could have a
significant effect.
3. Determinasi lingkungan paleotektonik
Berdasar sifat:
• Isotop Stabil dan Isotop radioaktif
Berdasar wujud material:
• Solid, liquid, gas
 Nomor atom (Z) sama
 Nomor massa (A) berbeda
 Isotop memperlihatkan perbedaan tipis
dalam hal sifat fisik dan sifat kimia
 Karenanya, pemisahan isotop hanya
signifikan pada unsur yang ringan, di
mana perbedaan satu dua neutron cukup
berpengaruh
 Tidak meluruh secara alamiah
 Digunakan dalam studi hidrologi-
geotermal untuk mengenali proses
ataupun asal air dan gas
 Yang paling umum digunakan adalah
Hidrogen (1H 2H), karbon (12C 13C),
oksigen (16O 18O), dan sulfur (32S 34S)
 selanjutnya 2H disebut D atau deuterium
 Massa atom kecil
 Unsur penting penyusun batuan-fluida geotermal
 Perbedaan massa antara isotop jarang (yang lebih
berat) dan isotop melimpah cukup signifikan
 Contoh: perbedaan massa antara 12C dan 13C 8.3%
18O dan16O 12.5%, D dan H hampir 100%
 Membentuk ikatan kimia kovalen derajat tinggi,
yang penting untuk mendeterminasi fraksionasi
isotop
 Kelimpahan isotop jarang cukup besar, untuk
menjamin kualitas analisis yang baik dengan mass
spectrometry
 KEMAMPUAN UNTUK TIDAK
TERPENGARUH/STABIL OLEH PROSES
FISIKA DAN KIMIA SELAMA
PERJALANAN DARI SUMBER HINGGA
TITIK SAMPLING
 Most commonly used isotopes:

• Hydrogen (1H, 2H =D, 3H)

• Oxygen (18O, 16O)
• Sulphur (32S, 34S)
• Carbon (12C, 13C)
 Studi fluida
• Determinasi asal fluida (meteoric, magmatic, ..)
• Determinasi proses fisikokimia yang mempengaruhi
perubahan komposisi kimia
 Interaksi fluida-batuan
 Percampuran dua jenis air yang berbeda
 Terjadinya kondensasi uap
• Determinasi asal komponen dalam fluida (mantle, crust,..)

 Prediksi umur fluida

(rentang waktu antara proses recharge-discharge/umur
sirkulasi fluida)
 Prediksi temperatur (Geothermometer)
 Sources of Geothermal Fluids
H- & O- Isotopes
 Physico-chemical processes affecting
the fluid composition
H- & O- Isotopes
 Sources
of components (elements,
compounds) in geothermal fluids
He-Isotopes (volatile elements)
1H = % 99.9852
2H (D) = % 0.0148

D/H
16O = % 99.76
17O = % 0.04
18O = % 0.20
18O / 16O
 (D/H)sample- (D/H)standard
 D () = ----------------------------------- x 103
(D/H)standard

(18O/16O)sample- (18O/16O)standard
 18O () = -------------------------------------------- x 103
(18O/16O)standard

Standard = Standard Mean Ocean Water

= SMOW
SMOW:
 18O/16O = 2005.2 ± 0.45 10-6
 D/H = 155.7 ± 0.05 10-6
PDB (carbon from belemnite of Pee Dee
Fm)
 13C/12C = 11237.2 ± 2.9 10-6
 18O/16O = 2067 ± 2.1 10-6
CD (S analysis of troilite (FeS) from Canyon
Diablo meteorite)
 34S/32S = 45004.5 X 10-6
 (D/H)sample- (D/H)SMOW
 D = ----------------------------------- x 103
(D/H)SMOW

(18O/16O)sample- (18O/16O)SMOW
 18O = -------------------------------------------- x 103
(18O/16O)SMOW
Sources of Natural Waters:

1. Meteoric Water (rain, snow)

2. Sea Water
3. Fossil Waters (trapped in sediments in sedimentary
basins)
4. Magmatic Waters
5. Metamorphic Waters
 SMOW
0 +

M e ta m o r p h ic
W a te r s
-4 0

  D (p e r m il) F ie ld o f
F o r m a tio n
W a te r s
-8 0 M a g m a tic
W a te r s

M o s t ig n e o u s
-1 2 0 b io tite s &
h o r n b le n d e s

-2 0 -1 0 0 10 20 30

 1 8O  (p e r m il)
Latitute 
d
D d
18O

Altitute from Sea level 

d
D d
18O
 Kegunaan: untuk dating/penentuan umur
absolut
 RINGKASAN BEBERAPA METODA PENENTUAN UMUR ABSOLUT

METODE WAKTU PARUH JANGKAUAN CONTOH CATATAN

DAN PELURUHAN YANG DIANALISIS
ANALISIS

238U – 296Pb 4,51.109 tahun  10.109 tahun Mineral pada batuan beku dan 238U lebih banyak daripada
235U ; waktu paruh
batuan metamorf,
(8 alpha + 6 khususnya uraninite, 222Rn pendek

beta) pitchblende, samarakite, ( 3,82 hari)

cyrtolite, thorianite,
zircon, thorite
235U – 207Pb 7,1.108 tahun 3 - 4.109 tahun Identik dengan yang Waktu paruh 219Rn pendek
digunakan pada metode (3,92 detik)
(7 alpha + 4 238U - 206Pb

beta)
Pb – Pb 3,5.109 tahun Galena, mineral-mineral Menggunakan
uranium perbandingan
isotropik
40K Mika, feldspar, whole-rock, 40Ar banyak lolos pada
– 40Ar 1,3.109 tahun 4.106 – 2,7.109
glauconite feldspar; sangat
(electron tahun terpengaruh pada
captured) pemanasan dan
metamorfosa
87Rb – 87Sr 4,7.1010 tahun > 50.106 tahun Mika, lepidolite, muscovite, peluruhan 87Rb tidak
biotite, feldspar, whole- stabil ;
(beta) (< 50.106 tahun sangat rock, glauconite rehomogenasi
meragukan) isotop Rb-Sr karena
metamorfosa
14C 5730 tahun 35.000 tahun, Kayu, cangkang Diasumsikan produksi 14C
Akurasi baik untuk 20.000 oleh radiasi kosmis
(14C – 14N) tahun terakhir dan distribusinya di
(beta) atmosfir stabil