31

,,,
20 P. K. Frobenius dan W. S. Robinson· , /

KEPALA SENSOR
harus berisi redundansi yang cukup untuk
jaminan kualitas, dan harus disesuaikan
dengan metode kuadrat terkecil. Survei
vertikal primer adalah sirkuit tingkat tertutup
yang dijalankan dari benchmark NGS orde
pertama yang ada (atau lembaga lain yang
dapat diterima) melalui tolok ukur yang
ditetapkan untuk proyek tersebut. Ketinggian
biasanya disesuaikan dengan Datum Vertikal
Geodesi Nasional 1929 (NGVD29) dan
didasarkan pada pub terbaru

":
,Id
Gambar 3-11. Lokasi pipa logam yang terkubur dengan triangulasi vertikal
menggunakan toning elektromagnetik frekuensi rendah. Pipa pertama kali
ditempatkan menggunakan sensor dalam mode vertikal. Kedalaman
penguburan kemudian ditentukan dengan menempatkan pipa dengan sensor
45° ke vertikal. Kedalaman penguburan sama dengan jarak antara posisi sensor.

J
Kurva respons tipikal menunjukkan null ketika sensor menunjuk ke tengah
pipa ,
'I
,I
lokasi, jenis, tanggal konstruksi dan perbaikan,
METAL PIPE~ kepemilikan, hak jalan, dll. dalam disimpan Informasi ini
lapisan data khusus, dan dapat dengan mudah diakses untuk
ditampilkan atau diplot baik teknis maupun informasi
demografis
• "Babi pintar" untuk minyak dan jalur gas saat ini dalam
tahap prototipe. Ini adalah paket instrumen yang, ketika
RESPONSE CURVE
dipaksa oleh tekanan atau traksi untuk melintasi pipa,
mengirimkan informasi koordinat de memperhalus
kedalaman dan lokasinya.

Primer Survei Jaringan

o PIPA
primer adalah referensi posisi dasar untuk proyek. Survei ini
harus didasarkan pada monumen yang stabil dan mudah diakses,
dan harus dilakukan dengan tingkat akurasi yang tinggi untuk
 memenuhi kebutuhan proyek. Pekerjaan survei, perhitungan,
penyesuaian, dan perekaman data harus dan dapat diandalkan
sehingga desain dan konstruksi dapat berjalan dengan keyakinan dan jarak yang akurat, logika komputer internal, pemrosesan
mutlak pada kredibilitas data survei. data , dan penyimpanan data sudut dan jarak yang diamati.
Rentang pengukuran jarak tergantung pada jenis EDM yang
Kontrol Survei. Survei horizontal primer dilakukan dengan digunakan , jumlah prisma reflektif, dan kejernihan udara .
menggunakan triangulasi, lintasan pengukur jarak elektronik Kisaran tipikal adalah 2.000-3.000 m, dengan beberapa
(EDM), trilaterasi, survei Global Positioning System (GPS), atau instrumen khusus berkisar lebih dari 7.000 m. Standar deviasi
kombinasi dari metode-metode tersebut. Survei horizontal pengukuran sudut dan jarak bervariasi dengan berbagai model
peningkatan dari tolok ukur asli. Instrumen survei harus dan membuat EDM tersedia . Standar deviasi sudut berkisar dari
dipelihara dalam yang tepat , dan batang harus dikalibrasi 0,5 hingga 6,0 detik busur . Jarak standar deviasi berkisar antara
sebelum memulai pekerjaan. Instrumen dan batang harus 1 mm plus 1 ppm hingga 5 mm plus 3 ppm (Gambar 3-1). (Lihat
memenuhi spesifikasi untuk pekerjaan yang harus dilakukan, Majalah P'OB, April-Mei, 1994.)
dan prosedur harus sesuai dengan NGS untuk survei geodesi. EDM dengan pengumpul data dapat mengunduh data survei
Setelah pemilihan rute selesai , survei horizontal dan vertikal untuk diproses dan diplot menggunakan perangkat lunak
dengan akurasi tinggi dilakukan, dengan monumen permanen khusus "field-to-finish".
dipasang di dekat portal, adit, dan lokasi terpilih lainnya di
koridor proyek. Desain dan pelaksanaan survei harus dilakukan Sistem Pemosisian Global (GPS). Penempatan koordinat
dengan tujuan untuk membangun sistem survei tunggal dan yang luas biasanya dilakukan dengan survei GPS, yang
otoritatif yang didasarkan pada monumen yang didirikan dan memanfaatkan waktu transit sinyal dari stasiun bumi ke satelit
memenuhi standar akurasi yang diperlukan untuk proyek untuk menentukan posisi relatif monumen dalam jaringan
tersebut. Semua survei dan pekerjaan konstruksi berikutnya kontrol. Akurasi pengukuran pada jumlah satelit diamati,
harus hanya didasarkan pada jaringan survei kontrol, dan konfigurasi kelompok satelit yang diamati, waktu pengamatan
rencana serta spesifikasi proyek harus berisi pernyataan spesifik yang telah berlalu , kualitas transmisi , jenis penerima GPS,
yang menegaskan hal ini. dan faktor lain termasuk desain jaringan dan teknik yang
Meskipun sebagian besar proyek besar di Amerika Serikat digunakan untuk memproses data. Dalam kondisi normal, survei
terikat oleh survei ke Datum Amerika Utara (NAD) secara GPS dapat mencapai akurasi posisi 2-4 mm ( 0,006-0,013
horizontal, dan secara vertikal ke NGVD29, jaringan survei kaki), ± 1 ppm jarak ke stasiun pangkalan, menggunakan
kontrol utama dan koordinat serta elevasi yang diturunkan penerima frekuensi ganda (Gambar 3-2).
darinya mungkin didasarkan pada setiap datum yang dipilih. Survei GPS memerlukan operasi simultan dari beberapa
Dalam memilih sistem koordinat yang menjadi dasar sistem instrumen penerima yang terletak di stasiun yang berbeda di
survei horizontal kontrol utama, argumen persuasif sering seluruh jaringan survei, dan keberhasilan sesi pengamatan
diajukan oleh pemerintah daerah, perusahaan utilitas, dan tergantung pada masing-masing instrumen berada di tempat dan
sejenisnya yang mendukung kerja penggunaan monumen yang beroperasi pada waktu yang telah ditentukan. Hal ini
ada di lokasi dan menyesuaikan survei proyek untuk koordinat memerlukan perencanaan awal yang terperinci, yang mencakup
sudah didirikan untuk monumen ini. Tidak bijaksana untuk kebutuhan untuk menjadwalkan akses, rute perjalanan, hak
menyetujui ini, karena survei yang lebih tua, bahkan lintasan
masuk , kondisi lalu lintas, dll. Operasi malam secara
orde pertama atau triangulasi, biasanya tidak memenuhi akurasi substansial meningkatkan upaya perencanaan yang diperlukan
yang dapat dicapai dari instrumen dan teknik survei saat ini, dan untuk memastikan sukses GPS operasi namun, dengan galaksi
karena set koordinat yang ada hanya dapat dilakukan dengan
penuh satelit sekarang tersedia, operasi malam biasanya tidak
mendistorsi survei primer. penyesuaian dengan mengorbankan . diperlukan.
akurasi survei utama
Meskipun intervisibility antara monumen GPS tidak
Teknik komputasi yang umum digunakan, khususnya untuk diperlukan untuk menyelesaikan survei GPS, survei selanjutnya
survei Sistem Pemosisian Global, adalah dengan menyimpan akan memiliki referensi backsights untuk kontrol azimuth. Tugu
koordinat publikasi yang ada dari satu monumen NGS yang ada yang saling terlihat harus cukup jauh satu sama lain sehingga
sebagai dasar untuk koordinat proyek, dan merujuk pada kesalahan posisi GPS gabungan tidak mengakibatkan kesalahan
koordinat yang dipublikasikan dari satu atau lebih NGS azimuth yang berlebihan antar monumen. Data GPS biasanya
tambahan untuk menentukan azimuth untuk proyek tersebut. Ini diproses lebih lanjut menggunakan pengurangan baseline dan
menghilangkan kendala buatan dari proses penyesuaian, dan algoritme penyesuaian kuadrat terkecil untuk penentuan
memastikan bahwa koordinat hanya akan mencerminkan hasil koordinat , dan elevasi yang dirujuk ke spheroid.
survei yang tidak terdistorsi. Monumen yang ada di lokasi Meskipun survei GPS sekarang dianggap "konvensional",
proyek dapat digunakan jika secara fisik stabil, berlokasi sesuai, survei GPS tingkat tinggi memerlukan prosedur yang sangat
dan dapat diakses; namun, untuk menghindari kebingungan, canggih untuk pekerjaan lapangan dan kantor. Oleh karena itu,
koordinat dan ketinggian yang ada dari monumen-monumen ini pekerjaan harus direncanakan dan dilaksanakan di bawah
tidak boleh dicatat atau digunakan dalam catatan proyek. arahan spesialis GPS yang berkualifikasi dengan kredensial
yang kuat dalam penerapan tingkat lanjut untuk desain dan
Pengukuran Jarak Elektronik. modem EDM menggabungkan konstruksi.
pengukuran sudut Survei Terowongan dan Kontrol Alignment 21
 Monumen Konstruksi dan Pencatatan permanen
Monumen dari kuningan atau aluminium diamankan di di
tempat atau di- beton tiang grout ke dalam struktur beton atau
f?\ SSC SURVEI MONUMEN REKAM
batuan dasar terbuka. Tiang-tiang beton yang memuat tolok ...... coo
ukur atau monumen kontrol tidak boleh dilapis di atas serpih
........ v .... -N.'''' c."" , .... om
lepas, tanah liat, gambut, atau ekspansif atau tekan lainnya;
mereka harus ditambatkan di tanah atau batu dasar yang stabil.
Monumen harus dibangun dengan efek berdiri dari pembekuan
dan pencairan. Selama pemasangan monumen , catatan survei
~
monumen harus disiapkan yang menjelaskan jenis dan lokasi ~ 'Aku' , R'TK-. t •• o 1,'1
~ •• 24257.782 III 24507.7.237
1_ 807.8117
I ~I
monumen , hubungan referensi dengan fitur terdekat, dan
deskripsi lokasi dan rute yang harus diikuti untuk menemukan
monumen. Setelah menyelesaikan dan menyesuaikan survei
primer, koordinat, elevasi, az imuth, dan jarak ke monumen
3Z·'O'OIl.8785
.TA1'ION
-- __ T_
OO ....... ..... III" 54'32.10118 PC

yang dapat dilihat, tanggal survei jenis survei , dan identifikasi 100 97"24'5:'- 3087,178

lembaga survei harus ditambahkan untuk melengkapi formulir

catatan monumen. Informasi ini harus diwujudkan dalam
rencana alinyemen terowongan akhir dan gambar profil
!::::-..
- ,- PC 178
284'27'35" 4787,852
• BPS

WAXAHACHIE, TX PC 101 92"."21" 8174.128

(Gambar 3-12 dan 3-13).

Pada proyek yang membutuhkan presisi ekstrim, stabilitas F" PERTAMA
monumen sangat survei penting, dan memerlukan desain dan Approa'me'e', t ........ louth ••• t o. Rad 0.1e. Dari HI.ha, saya 35 E loulhbound. 'aka •• U ......... ., .01 aJMI

konstruksi khusus untuk mendeteksi dan menahan gaya tanah

Dari 0,33 mU.. 10 • dlvld., dan Ih. ".Uo" pada
Kambing""', __ ... Sering HI ••• , 77 '
(Gambar 3-5).
, .ft ba'ore lh. o •• rp.... The ",'alloa I, looatad top of. .... .. hHi and I, .pprox""a'a',
Oft

8-"" hi ..... ' lMa the ,oaeL

Data Geodesi yang Dipublikasikan. Data kontrol geodetik
dan informasi tografik mobil yang berhubungan dengan
National Networks

Gambar 3·13. monumen (proyek Superkonduktor Super Collider)

luas oleh Pusat Informasi Geodesi Nasional (NGIC) NGS ke

Gambar 3-12. Monumen tolok ukur dengan II2-in. batang baja yang
digerakkan, selubung PVC, dan kerah dan penutup aluminium cor
(Monumen 3D NSG).
22 P. K. Frobenius dan W. S. Robinson
komunitas ilmiah dan pemetaan survei.
Data kontrol geodetik untuk jaringan nasional terutama
diterbitkan sebagai segi empat standar garis 30 lintang dengan
30 kaki. Namun, di daerah yang padat, segi empat standar
berukuran 15 kaki di garis lintang kali 15 kaki di garis bujur. Di
sebagian besar wilayah , karena Alaskasparseness of control,
unit quadrangle berukuran 1 ft di lintang dengan 1 ft di bujur
NOAA menyediakan data geodetik terkait lainnya, misalnya,
data dasar kalibrasi, nilai gravitasi, posisi astronomi, posisi
horizontal yang disesuaikan sebelumnya, data horizontal dan
vertikal untuk studi pergerakan kerak, data koordinat Universal
Transverse
, (UTM), dan informasi Mercator lainnya menerima data dari
semua NOAA operasi lapangan dan menandai pemulihan .
Selain itu, negara bagian, dan lokal lainnya, dan organisasi
swasta menyumbangkan data survei dari operasi lapangan
mereka. Ini dikorporasikan ke dalam NGIC file kontrol NOAA
telah menandatangani perjanjian formal dengan beberapa
lembaga pemerintah di mana NGIC menerbitkan, memelihara,
dan mendistribusikan data geodesi yang diterima dari
organisasi-organisasi ini.
Teknik penerbitan mikro baru telah diperkenalkan dalam
bentuk yang dihasilkan komputer. Beberapa geodetik
tersedia dalam pita magnetik, mikrofilm, dan mikrofiche, dan
data kontrol geodetik horizontal dan vertikal untuk seluruh
Amerika Serikat tersedia untuk dibeli dalam set satu 5 CD·
ROM. Biaya untuk data otomatis ditentukan berdasarkan
permintaan individu, dan mencerminkan waktu pemrosesan,
bahan, dan ongkos kirim. Untuk informasi tambahan, hubungi
NOAA, National Geodetic Survey N/CG174, 1314 E. West
Highway, Station 9202, Silver Springs, MD 20910; Telepon:
(301) 713-3242, FAKS: (301) 713-4172.
Faktor Grid dan Pengurangan Permukaan Laut. Ketika
rencana konstruksi sedang dipersiapkan, setiap rencana (atau
serangkaian rencana ) harus menyertakan pernyataan yang
mendefinisikan hubungan antara jarak yang diperoleh dari
koordinat grid dan
jarak yang sesuai di lapangan. Hubungan ini merupakan fungsi
dari faktor skala grid dan elevasi di atas permukaan laut proyek
tengah di setiap lembar.Konformal Lambert
grid Proyeksi arah timur-barat pada grid Proyeksi Mercator
Trans verse. Survei Geodesi Nasional telah menyiapkan dan
menerbitkan tabel untuk setiap proyeksi, yang mencakup
semua zona Koordinat Bidang Negara di setiap negara bagian
ditambah Puerto Riko, Kepulauan Virgin, St. Croix, dan Samoa
Amerika.
Faktor skala elevasi, atau faktor reduksi permukaan laut,
digunakan untuk mengubah jarak pengukuran tanah pada
elevasi proyek ke jarak yang sesuai pada elevasi permukaan
laut. Dengan asumsi radius rata-rata bumi adalah 20.906.000
kaki, faktor penurunan muka air laut ditentukan sebagai
berikut:
Faktor penurunan muka air laut =
1 _ ketinggian proyek di atas permukaan laut survei kontraktor, dan untuk membatasi dampak pada konstruksi
20.906.000
Contoh:
Panjang garis yang diukur di permukaan tanah = 10.000.000
kaki Ketinggian garis ukur = ft _ dpl
2.000 _ _ _ _
_ dan kantor mereka, mungkin layak untuk menggabungkan
_________ __
_ _ _ _ _ ft X 0.999994 = 9998.984 ft
Dari sini terlihat bahwa panjang grid yang dihitung dari
koordinat akan berbeda dari panjang yang diukur di lapangan, independen mencatat semua pengukuran dan menyelesaikan
dan pernyataan harus disertakan dalam setiap rencana yang
mendefinisikan hubungan antara panjang grid dan ground.
Dalam contoh di atas, pernyataan berikut akan sesuai: ''Untuk
mengubah panjang kisi menjadi panjang dasar, kalikan panjang
kisi dengan 1.0001016," atau sebaliknya, ''Untuk mengonversi
panjang tanah menjadi panjang
kisi, kalikan panjang tanah dengan 0,9998984. " Pada
proyek-proyek besar, mungkin disarankan untuk merancang
grid koordinat khusus untuk kontrol horizontal untuk
meminimalkan efek pengurangan permukaan laut dan faktor
skala grid, sehingga menghilangkan kebutuhan untuk
mengkonversi dari panjang tanah ke panjang grid, dan
sebaliknya.
Pembagian Tanggung Jawab antara
Tetap Insinyur dan Kontraktor
Biaya survei kecil dibandingkan dengan pengeluaran yang
terlibat dalam pembuatan terowongan. Namun demikian, jika
tunneling terhenti karena gangguan survei yang salah atau
karena kru pekerjaan oleh survei insinyur dengan operasi
mengemudi, kerugian yang dihasilkan dapat cukup besar. Untuk
alasan ini, spesifikasi yang berkaitan dengan akurasi mengemudi
terowongan harus ditulis sebagai spesifikasi kinerja, dan
kontraktor harus bertanggung jawab penuh untuk mentransfer
garis dan kemiringan dari kontrol permukaan utama ke dalam
terowongan dan untuk pengembangan . prosedur kontrol
konstruksi terowongan Jika penundaan atau pengerjaan ulang
disebabkan oleh kesalahan dalam data survei dasar yang
diberikan oleh insinyur, atau oleh gangguan yang tidak
beralasan selama insinyur , klaim kontraktor untuk kompensasi
tambahan tidak dapat dihindari.
Sebelum dimulainya konstruksi , surveyor insinyur
melakukan semua pekerjaan survei seperti survei pendahuluan
dan survei kontrol utama di permukaan. Selama konstruksi,
insinyur tanggung jawab survei harus dibatasi pada
pemeliharaan jaringan survei dasar, pemantauan struktur yang
ada, dan pemeriksaan hasil pekerjaan kontraktor. Ini termasuk
memastikan bahwa kontrol survei bawah tanah dari
bersebelahan setuju pada antarmuka kontrak .pemeriksaan
Pekerjaan harus dilakukan kualitas insinyur
surveyor kontrol pada jadwal yang ditentukan, dengan pekerjaan
lapangan dan pekerjaan selesai dan ditinjau oleh insinyur
sesegera mungkin untuk mendeteksi kesalahan dalam pekerjaan
yang dapat menyebabkan kesalahan tersebut. Setiap perbedaan
di luar toleransi dengan kontraktor survei atau penyimpangan
dari rencana konstruksi harus diverifikasi dan diberitahukan
kepada kontraktor tanpa penundaan.
Baik ruang dan waktu untuk survei biasanya terbatas pada
proyek terowongan. Meskipun penting bahwa surveyor insinyur
dan kontraktor menjaga independensi dalam operasi lapangan
kekuatan ketika waktu dan/atau ruang sangat terbatas. Hal ini
dapat dicapai dengan membentuk tim survei gabungan dan
berbagi tugas yang sama dalam melakukan pengukuran dan
pengamatan survei, dengan masing-masing pihak secara
perhitungan. Jika pengumpul data digunakan, log data dapat
disalin , atau log asli dapat digunakan oleh kedua belah pihak
untuk perhitungan dan persiapan rencana .
Informasi mengenai ketinggian air tanah yang diperoleh dari
pembacaan sumur observasi sangat penting untuk operasi
terowongan kontraktor. Oleh karena itu, masuk akal untuk
memasukkan pemasangan sumur , pemeliharaan observasi
sumur, dan pembacaan ketinggian air secara berkala dalam
kewajiban
kontraktual kontraktor. Catatan ketinggian air harus tersedia
untuk insinyur pada saat perekaman . Pembacaan penurunan
permukaan, yang berfungsi sebagai indikasi masalah konstruksi
pada arah terowongan, bukan merupakan kepentingan praktis
langsung dari kontraktor. Faktanya pembacaan , kemungkinan
yang tidak akurat
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 23
selama waktu ketika masalah heading ditemui lebih besar
daripada selama operasi normal. Kontraktor kesulitan
disibukkan dengan masalah konstruksi pada pos selama masa
dan , oleh karena itu, menghabiskan waktu minimal pada
pembacaan tingkat permukaan yang diperlukan. Untuk alasan
ini, ketinggian permukaan di atas terowongan harus dijalankan
dan dievaluasi oleh surveyor kendali mutu, dan hasilnya harus
tersedia bagi kontraktor. Pemasangan dan pemantauan alat
perekam khusus, seperti titik penurunan bawah permukaan,
dalam klinometer, dan pengukur regangan, juga harus menjadi
tanggung jawab surveyor kendali mutu.
GEOMETRI TEROWONGAN
Hubungan ke Centerline Track sistem
Centerline Tunnel
angkutan cepat, centerline track dan center line terowongan
biasanya tidak identik karena persyaratan clear ance. Garis
tengah lintasan adalah kontrol dasar selama tata letak sistem .
Selama konstruksi terowongan , bagaimanapun, diinginkan dari
sudut pandang praktis bahwa personil lapangan kontraktor dan
24 P. K. Frobenius dan W. S. Robinson.
insinyur menggunakan tengah terowongan daripada garis
tengah lintasan sebagai dasar kontrol terowongan.
Offset vertikal dan horizontal dari garis tengah lintasan ke
garis tengah terowongan bervariasi dengan superelevasi
lintasan . Garis tengah terowongan yang dihasilkan adalah
kurva . definisi matematika yang kompleks (Gambar 3-14)Oleh
karena itu, garis tengah terowongan harus dikembangkan yang
terdiri dari bagian tangen, lingkaran, dan spiral transisi dan
mendekati garis tengah terowongan teoritis yang kompleks
dalam toleransi yang ditentukan
(0,25 in.). Garis tengah ini harus dimasukkan ke dalam gambar
kontrak kontrak terowongan, dan semua kontrol terowongan
harus didasarkan pada kurva ini.
Hasil cetak komputer yang mencantumkan koordinat titik ,
bantalan tangen, dan elevasi titik dan kemiringan pada interval
5 kaki di garis tengah terowongan juga harus dimasukkan ke
dalam dokumen kontrak. Karena penempatan terowongan
garis tengah dan lintasan garis tengah tidak akan cocok karena
jari -jari kurva yang berbeda, persamaan stasiun antara
terowongan garis tengah dan
lintasan garis tengah harus digabungkan pada awal dan akhir
setiap kontrak konstruksi, pada titik TS (tangen spiral), di SC
(kurva spiral), dan pada titik-titik seperti poros ventilasi atau
lintasan silang. Penempatan untuk garis tengah terowongan
harus dimulai di stasiun 0 + 00 untuk setiap kontrak
terowongan. Penempatan
lintasan sistem , yang umumnya terdiri dari beberapa kontrak
terowongan. Jika sistem angkutan cepat memiliki titik pusat
alami dari mana beberapa jalur bercabang ke arah yang
berbeda, stasiun 0 + 00 harus ditetapkan ke titik ini.
Penempatan kemudian dilanjutkan ke daerah-daerah terpencil,
dan perluasan sistem dapat ditambahkan tanpa mengganggu
urutan penempatan.
Garis Kerja. Garis kerja adalah garis survei yang
digunakan oleh personel lapangan kontraktor untuk memasang
perisai atau
t .'1 '(111'
~." 1.TA_SJ' .... ~

l~OI''''l"''III''''''"'1C1
~11llCl.. ~N'!.
MO!llZ9NIAL TUHN!!L ALIGNMeHT
~, fO KAll

5,u ..,., 1

TUIiIIINI\. tlCflOIlt I'IIOT fO ' It"""

".4U s._ u.)· ... ", ':1.010 UJ.·'Saya. UI 0 ....
'2,.,,0 ~, t . tidak 'Uhf!! O. CIt, '.401 'U.ooOO 0.' ''4 tu·:n O.ltl nJ t . )1 ,

It "",1 ... nu 'UT fUT

,
~~:l!~
",soc.tl. 0 . 1.2 S .!U O. ltO t , M1
-so '1.-." tl ... n , lol 0 . 1

...UtoOO " 5lt·n

u, .. !tO
!Ut·" ,
5'0-000
no·n no""""
uo·'" UI-oG ,
U .. U' Ut-1lCl
.....
lit ,taUI;1N t IIhCal
II(' '(1' ",'·n ..... t . )11 "f,·",1Ol
t .)ll UI.'1. '" 0 . 111 , • • OS 51"" (I , ltCI '.'OJ UleOO e1.14, '.U. tn·n CI .

tU U. 01'
'."ot UI.."O CI . ,.4" tn·'1 0 . '.·01 t».ooa 1;1 . 0-'
 WM(1IIIlJ III .. Oflill atau Iu-Q. C[N'Ul ' lIC,
1. 'oU", II • o.HJ /I~ ..-fll' I .. IO.UI/I ~ II • ,[':1111

Of Wl1hL _fIO'I n ~ IT!. I . . .... 'LltJ' .....

to .. rIlJ &l!ClIoII.lllI!I:.I"I. 1J,I (ONS,IUf • • lLOW(; CIIIICu.dI tilt IIIIDs..

..!'2!1L

UNTUK , ....
i t 101·'0

Gbr. 3-14. Hubungan antara garis tengah lintasan , garis tengah terowongan , dan monumen kontrol permukaan utama.
teoritis cincin lancip untuk bagian tangen dan terowongan
melengkung pada Tabel 3-4. Cincin lancip ekstra selalu dapat
dipasang kembali
panduan mesin tunneling di terowongan. Garis kerja mungkin
bertepatan dengan garis tengah terowongan atau dapat berjalan
melalui titik posisi laser untuk pengaturan laser. Pemilihan jalur
kerja harus peralatan diserahkan kepada kontraktor agar sesuai ·. ..
dengan
dan metode terowongannya. Garis kerja biasanya dibuat dengan
metode survei traverse.

Geometri Lapisan Terowongan dan Cincin Lancip. baja,

besi cor, atau pracetak dipasang di terowongan untuk menopang
tanah. Lapisan yang digunakan untuk konstruksi terowongan
tanah lunak BART San Francisco adalah tipikal. Cincin lapisan
terdiri dari enam segmen baja yang dilas dan segmen kunci kecil
(lihat Gambar 3-15). Segmen-segmen itu dibaut bersama-sama
dan ke flensa dari cincin yang dipasang terakhir di bagian ekor
pelindung untuk dengan membentuk cincin pelapis standar lebar 0 • Saya! i':'T. • T· ' "0lil"111 U •• 'III 1"II.Jika - •

2,5 kaki dan diameter luar 17,5 kaki. Cincin standar

cenderung digunakan pada bagian terowongan dengan jari-jari --, - , - ,-
• • 04 _ : 'I. 3-15
kurva lebih dari 1.500 kaki. Cincin khusus luar 18,0 kaki
dipasang di bagian terowongan di mana jari-jari kurva lebih .
pendek dari 1.500 kakikurva
membutuhkan izin tambahan.
Jika cincin lapisan lurus dipasang secara berurutan, mereka . Geometri cincin lancip.
akan membentuk bagian terowongan lurus, kecuali untuk
defleksi cincin .
ke satu sisi atau lain yang disebabkan oleh distorsi cincinOleh
karena itu, di mana terowongan dibangun pada kurva vertikal ke belakang untuk membentuk cincin lurus ganda. Perbandingan
atau horizontal, cincin lancip diperlukan untuk mengubah arah garis 3 dan 4 dari Tabel 3-4 menunjukkan bahwa terowongan
horizontal atau vertikal terowongan . Lebar cincin ini teoretis yang dihitung dengan mengalikan jumlah cincin yang
diturunkan dari standar 30 inci. lebar untuk mengurangi lebar terhenti dengan lebar cincin terowongan, harus dikurangi dengan
29.25,28.75 , dan 28 inci, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada sebagian
Gambar 3-15 dan Tabel 3-3.jari - kurva terowongan menentukankecil dari lancip untuk setiap cincin lancip diinstal. Ketika cincin
jenis dan jumlah cincin lancip yang diperlukan. Tabel 3-3 lancip didirikan sehingga titik terlebarnya terletak tepat pada
menunjukkan bahwa cincin lancip luar 17,5 kaki yang diameter vertikal atau horizontal, perubahan sepenuhnya
meruncing 0,75 inci membentuk vertikal atau horizontal. Cukup sering, bagaimanapun, titik
kurva radius 691,25 kaki. Untuk radius kurva yang lebih terluas dari cincin lancip harus didirikan pada titik tengah karena
panjang, dipasang cincin lurus dan lancip bergantian. Biasanya kebutuhan untuk memutuskan sambungan cincin. Ketika ini
kontraktor harus membuat perkiraan jumlah ring taper yang dilakukan, perubahan arah terjadi di bidang vertikal dan
dibutuhkan sebelum terowongan dimulai. Berdasarkan jari-jari horizontal. Jam lancip, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar
dan panjang kurva yang terlibat dan geometri cincin lancip, ia 3-16, nyaman untuk memvisualisasikan hubungan antara
membuat perkiraan jumlah teoritis cincin lancip dan lurus. perubahan arah vertikal dan horizontal berbagai posisi cincin .
Jumlah cincin lancip aktual yang dibutuhkan akan selalu lebih lancip untukUntuk menggunakan jam lancip , reproduksi jam ini
besar dari jumlah teoritis karena beberapa cincin lancip dipasang pada karton, dan cincin bagian dalam . dipisahkan dari
digunakan untuk mengoreksi penyimpangan mengemudi cincin luar Cincin luar diputar dalam posisi menyerupai cincin di
terowongan.aktual jumlah cincin lancip yang dibutuhkan, dalam macet sebelum cincin lancip yang dipertimbangkan.
jumlah cincin yang dipasang dibandingkan dengan jumlah Cincin lancip pada posisi yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar 3-15
akan menghasilkan overhang 0,057 0,15 kaki dan timah kaki di
sebelah kiri, yang akan melemparkan terowongan ke kanan. Jika searah jarum jam, menghasilkan nol overhang dan timah 0,06
meninggikan terowongan adalah kaki di sebelah kiri. Namun, ini akan menyebabkan sambungan
cincin sejajar dengan sambungan cincin yang didirikan
Tabel 3·3. Data Taper Ring sebelumnya, yang iklan
sangat mempengaruhi kekuatan lapisan.
Item
Survei Terowongan dan Alignment Kontrol
SURVEI KERJA DUKING KONSTRUKSI
Tabel 3-4. Cincin Lurus dan Lancip Diperlukan untuk Memvariasikan Kurva
Radius Terowongan Didorong dari Portal
Terowongan Dilapisi dengan 2.S-tt.
Di mana terowongan didorong dari portal, satu titik kerja di
Lebar Linino Rinas portal dan backsight, keduanya di jalur kerja, cukup untuk
18.0-ft
17.S-ft Diameter Diameter memperpanjang jalur kerja ke dalam terowongan. Theodolite
1.785-11 655-11
Radius Lurus Radius
dipasang di atas titik kerja portaL di Pandangan belakang
Garis Terowongan Terowongan Terowongan dibawa ke pandangan belakang yang telah ditetapkan
teori Nomor Lurus

dibutuhkan nngs yang Rinas 1 660 234 111 Taper D.?S-inch 2 - 148 - sebelumnya pada garis kerja. Kemudian teleskop dijatuhkan,
taner dan titik kerja diatur pada garis kerja di terowongan.
Ring 1,2S-inci 3 - - 119
laner
2,0-inci 4 - 37
taner Terowongan Didorong dari Kerja Poros
Footane teoretis 5 1650.00 995.0 66750 Rekaman Aktual" 6 1649.10 955.0 656,85 Jumlah Straight 7 621
204 85 Cincin Terpasang Rinas Dalam banyak kasus, terowongan dilakukan kerja dari
Taper D.7S-inci 8 39 178 - pekerjaan porosDua metode mentransfer garis dan tingkat dari
LaDer
Ring 1,2S inci 9 - - 138 permukaan ke bagian bawah poros dijelaskan.pertama
laner
2,0 inci 10 - - 44
taner
inci 11 6% 8% -
taoer
1,2S inci 12 - - 7%
taDer Dering 00_
2,0 inci t3 - - 3%
taoer
Perbedaan antara rekaman teoretis dan aktual adalah disebabkan oleh sekitar satu setengah lebih
lambat di terowongan garis tengah daripada cincin regangan.

tidak diinginkan, cincin lancip dapat diputar dua lubang baut

17 lantai, 6 inci , 0 inci ,Oin.
Ring 00_ (inci) 210_0 216.0 216.0 Jumlah

Taper (inci) 0.75 1.25 2.00 Sudut e (derajat) 00 ,12',16.65" 00 , 19',53_65" 00 ,31',49.81" Lendutan dalam
30 inci (inci) 0,107 0,174 0,278 Jarak untuk Membelokkan 1 inci (kaki) 23,33 14,44 910 Jari-jari cincin
lancip kontinu (kaki) 691,25 423,0 261,0
26 P. K. Frobenius dan W. S. Robinson
Metode adalah dengan pemandangan transit. Dua titik kerja yang
terletak di garis kerja dipasang pada tepi yang berlawanan dari
poros (lihat Gambar 3-17). Theodolit dipasang di atas salah satu
titik (WP1), dan pandangan ke belakang diambil ke a target pada
perpanjangan garis kerja (WP2). Kemudian teropong dijatuhkan,
dan titik di tepi berlawanan dari poros (WP3) terlihat untuk
memastikan garis singgung. Setelah theodolit sejajar, garis
diperpanjang turun dan menyeberang ke bagian poros bawah , di
mana titik kerja ditetapkan (WP4).Kemudian teodolit dipasang di
atas titik kerja di tepi berlawanan dari poros (WP3), dan sama
prosedur diulang, menghasilkan dua kerja pada garis kerja di
bawah bagian poros.

-~t
·

Gambar 3-16
 '--2."
di lokasi di kunci di mana distorsi

.- .-'--->-+--- ;:
SHAFT RENCANA ANO TUNNEL -----

/ -------- --- / ~-----__,!OOlIIr=::..=. ...... /'

iii!!. ".2

//
/
/' bola itu

dengan target
atau sisipan prisma
SECTIO~ MELALUI SHAFT ANO TUNNEL Gbr. 3-18 Metode yang digunakan untuk mentransfer elevasi permukaan
NOT TO SCAI..E dari tanda bangku permukaan down-shaft ke benchmark kontrol terowongan
menggunakan Taylor Hobson sphere dan total station, Super Collider
Gbr. 3-17. Pemindahan jalur kerja pada poros. Project (Courtesy, Measurement Science, Inc.)

Cara lain untuk mentransfer jalur ke poros adalah dengan berlangsung selama perubahan tekanan di dalam kunci minimum
menggunakan kawat baja yang menopang berat pemberat titik . Instrumen fondasi atau kerja harus ditempatkan sedekat
digantung dalam ember berisi minyak. Garis kerja pada mungkin dengan sekat. Kunci yang memiliki terbaik harus
permukaan ditandai dengan dua titik kerja pada sisi berlawanan digunakan untuk mengunci. kotoran yang didukung pada fondasi
dari poros. Sebuah teodolit dipasang pada satu titik kerja dan beton lebih baik daripada pria didukung oleh rangka baja.
terlihat pada titik kerja pada sisi berlawanan dari poros. Dua Dua metode mentransfer saluran melalui kunci udara
kawat baja, masing-masing dijelaskan. Pada metode pertama, theodolite dipasang di atas
menopang beban berat yang tergantung di poros, dibawa sejajar kerja titik (WP5) di poros yang berdekatan dengan kunci udara (s
dengan pandangan theodolite. Instrumen yang dipasang di poros ee Gambar 3-19 dan 3-20).diambil ke kerja titik di ujung
dapat dipindahkan (digoyangkan) agar sejajar dengan kedua backsight . poros (WP4)Kemudian ruang lingkup theodolite
kabel. Instrumen ini kemudian bekerja garis dan dapat dicelupkan, dan tiga titik didirikan di bagian bawah kunci udara
digunakan untuk menetapkan titik kerja di bagian bawah poros . sejajar dengan garis kerja di poros. Selama operasi ini, pintu
Sebagai pengganti bobot kawat yang digantung dari permukaan, udara bebas dari kunci udara terbuka dan kunci udara berada di
penurunan udara bebas. Kemudian udara diberi tekanan, dan pintu samping
optik ( perangkat pipa optik) dapat dipasang di poros di bawah udara terkompresi dari udara kunci dibuka. di terowongan dan
target permukaan pada pekerjaantitik kerja bagian poros bawah dipindahkan (digoyangkan) sampai sejajar dengan tiga titik di
di menetapkanGaris kerja di terowongan dapat divalidasi kunci udara. Kemudian lingkup ruang theodolite dicelupkan, dan
dengan menggunakan rotheodolite gy. Penempatan dipindahkan titik kerja ditetapkan di terowongan.
ke poros dengan metode yang dijelaskan sebelumnya. lain Metode untuk mentransfer saluran melalui kunci
Level dipindahkan ke bawah dengan menggantungkan pita melibatkan pengaturan kunci atas pekerjaan
baja standar ke dalam poros, menopang beban standar yang
menghasilkan tegangan standar. Di permukaan, pembacaan pita theodolite
dibuat dari ketinggian instrumen yang diketahui. Kemudian di . udara
level dipasang di bagian bawah poros , dan pembacaan
dilakukan pada pita suspensi. Ketinggian instrumen di bagian di3-21). Setelah theodolite dipasang di atas titik di kunci udara,
bawah poros diperoleh dengan mengurangkan perbedaan backsight dibawa ke titik kerja yang sebelumnya dipasang di
pembacaan pita dari ketinggian instrumen di tingkat atas dan poros pada garis kerja (WP4 dan WP5). Kemudian teleskop .
mengoreksi suhu. Level juga dapat ditransfer menggunakan theodolite dicelupkan, dan kuncinya diberi tekanan Pintu di
instrumen pengukur jarak elektronik (EDM) dalam mode sisi udara terkompresi dibuka, pandangan ke depan dibuat di
vertikal (lihat Gambar 3-18). terowongan, dan titik kerja ditetapkan pada garis kerja. Level
dan penempatan dilakukan melalui kunci udara dengan prosedur
membawa Kerja Garis melalui garis serupa.
Terkompresi Udara Kunci Dalam terowongan bertekanan, jarak survei yang diperoleh
kerja diperpanjang melalui kunci udara bertekanan, perhatian oleh EDM instrumen harus disesuaikan untuk mengimbangi
harus diberikan untuk memposisikan instrumen dan titik kerja pengaruh suhu dan tekanan. Hal ini dilakukan dengan
 menghitung koreksi bagian per juta (PPM) yang sesuai untuk appropriate PPM factors are applied during
suhu dan tekanan yang diamati data reduction and computations (Tables 3-5 and 3-6).
, dan memasukkannya ke EDM selama proses pengukuran. This Tables 3-5 and 3-6 are derived from the following:
PPM value, together with ob served temperature and pressure,
PPM =
should be recorded in field book or data log. If the
measurements are made with EDMs not equipped to dial in 281.8 - Total pressure in inches of Hg X 25.4 x 105.85
PPM values, temperature and pressure are recorded, and
11M

PPM = parts per million correction to

[(Temp OF - 32) X % ]+ 273.2 measured length

WP4 ~.lIIIl!! WP5

INSTRUMENT LOCATION No 2 where:
SECTION OF SHAFT AND AIRLOCKS
Air pressure at sea level = 14.70 psi
NOT TO SCALE
Temperature = OF in tunnel
Fig. 3-19. Extending horizontal control through air locks-method 1. 1 psi pressure = 2.0354 inches of mercury (Hg)

(WORKING LINE

L--·-=~·_)Sii_~I_~- WP6 WP7 WP8 WP9

PLAN OF SHAFT AND AIR LOCKS

WPJ "PI

iiii
'" \iii INSTRUMENT
E LOCATION No I

WP4 IIII~IIII
---
SECTION OF SHAFT AND AIR LOCKS
NOT TO SCALE

Fig. 3-20. Extending line through the muck lock (San Francisco Muni Metro Fig. 3-21. Extending horizontal control through air locks-method 2.
Turnaround Project).
28 P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson

Table 3-5. Parts per Million Correction (PPM) for EDM Measurements in Pressurized Tunnels

Gage Air PPM

psi psi in./Hg at 48°F at 58°F at 68°F at 78°F
0.00 14.70 29.92 -3.4 +2.1 +7.4 +12.5

2.00 16.70 33.99 -42.2 -35.9 -29.9 -24.1

4.00 18.70 38.06 -81.0 -74.0 -67.2 -60.7

6.00 20.70 42.13 -119.8 -112.0 -104.6 -97.4

8.00 22.70 46.20 -158.6 -150.1 -141.9 -134.0

10.00 24.70 50.28 -197.4 -188.1 -179.2 -170.6

12.00 26.70 54.35 -236.2 -226.2 -216.5 -207.3

14.00 28.70 54.82 -275.0 -264.2 -253.9 -243.9

Note that positive PPM will increase measured length and Survey Pipes from the Surface. In some compressed air
negative PPM will decrease measured length. For example: tunnel installations, compressors are located close to the access
shafts, and compressor vibrations, combined with the short
EDM measured length = 1,000.000 ft backsight available in the access shaft and obstruction
 Gage pressure = 3.5 psi (total pressure 18.20 14.70 + .5 the shaft into the tunnel extremely difficult.
Ib/in.) by construction equipment, make the In this case, it is advisable to bring control
Temperature = 48°F repeated transfer of working lines through into the
Total pressure = 18.20 psi X 2.0359 = 37.05 inches of Hg in the tunnel.
A target on the working line is set in the upper part of the survey
pipe. Then the point is transferred into the tunnel ei ther by wire
PPM = 281.8 - 37.04 X 25.4 X 105.85 weights or by the use of an optical plummet.
[(48 - 32) X %] + 273.2 Survey holes can also be sunk before the tunnel reaches the
receiving chamber to allow a final check in time to make
necessary corrections in the direction of driving before holing
PPM Factor = -71.23
through. Survey pipes shown in Figure 3-22 are for compressed
-0.0000712
1,000,000 = air tunnels. Free air tunnels simply require a drill hole from the
surface of adequate diameter to drop a line from the surface.
Length correction = 1,000.000 X 0.0000712 = -0.071
Corrected length = 1,000.000 - 0.071 = 999.929 ft Maintenance of Line and Grade in the Tunnel. From the
work shafts or tunnel portals, the working line is carried ahead
through work points; stationing is established by EDM
measurement or tension chaining. If the tunnel is in stable
ground, pins are driven into the crown of the tunnel to serve as
Table 3-6. PPM Corrections for EDM Measurements
work points. The theodolite is centered under a plumb bob
PRESSURE-AIR (psi) suspended from the pin. To establish a work point in soft
14 16 18 20 22 24 28 30 ground where tunnel movement is anticipated, a plumbline and
target are attached to movable slides bolted to ring flanges or
tunnel ribs in the crown of the tunnel (Fig
ures 3-23 and 3-24). A survey platform is mounted below the
,.... slide, and plumb bob positions for each survey run are recorded
::;;
-5 a.. on waterproof graph paper attached to the face of the platform.
~ The transit is set up on the survey platform under the plumb bob
c::: suspended from the slide marking the work point. With this
0 -10 c::: arrangement, surveyors can work in the crown of the tunnel
c:::
w
without interfering with the passage of muck trains and other
equipment (see Figure 3-23). Al
w
u z en though normal sight conditions usually permit sights around
-15 «I -20Ci

-25
TUNNEL SURVEY CONTROL
-30~5 N.TS

PRESSURE (in.
~ -... TOP OF PAVEMENT
tunnel through survey holes sunk from the surface (see Fig ure
3-22). Two holes at a distance of about 200 ft on the working
DETAIL I ----"I
/ ! '\
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 29
line are sufficient to transfer two work points from the surface
into the tunnel and thereby establish working line and stationing

ELECT. HOOKUP a
AIR RELI EF
VALVE sox
DETAIL 2--_
LOCATION
OF KEY Fig. 3-22. Survey hole from surface.
JISEALEO BOX FOR TARGET -"

12" tJ PIPE CASI NG
GROUT
REMOVABLE PLATE
SLl-) 17. 81
LINER RING
ELECTRICAL WIRE
DETAIL
GROUT-----i REMOVABLE It.
600 ft, it is advisable to set work points at a distance of not more
than 300 ft to allow for bad sight conditions due to smoke or
fog. Levels are carried ahead by similar methods, with
benchmarks set at approximately 300-ft intervals.
It is important to keep clear, concise records of survey work.
Every time the line is rerun, a record of scale settings should be
entered on a summary sheet on which the scale settings of
previous survey runs are recorded. Chaining dif
ferences for distances between scales are shown on the same
summary sheet. This survey record makes it possible to ana lyze
the results of survey runs and to differentiate between survey
errors and a pattern of tunnel movement. In soft ground, the
lines are rerun at least once every week until good agreement of
scale readings indicates that the location of a given control
point or a section of the line is stable.
30 P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson·
Construction Control for Drill-and-Blast Methods.
Where the tunnel is excavated by drill-and-blast methods, the
ALIGHII[HT ITAflOHIHG
centerline is extended to the face before drilling for the next
round starts. The centerline location is marked on the
SPECIAL TUNNEL LINER
RING SECTION
(/6 - 40 RING)
DETAIL 2
face, and the drill pattern is centered on that mark. Survey ors
also give centerline location for the setting of steel sets.
Construction Control for Shields or TBMs. A shield or
tunneling machine progresses in a sequence of shoves. After
each shove, the shield or machine is stopped and its lo cation
and attitude are determined.
If the shield or machine is found to be off-line, adjust ments
of the steering mechanism are made to guide it back to its
desired location.
Where tunnel lining is erected in the tail of the shield, its
location and attitude are determined and recorded. The deci
sion of whether to install standard or tapered lining sections
after the next shove is based on this record.
The most practical method of shield or machine control is by
laser beam and double target (for a description of the laser
principle, see the Encyclopedia of Science Technol ogy). A
laser (see Figure 3-25) is set up at a distance behind the shield
or tunneling machine to emit a laser beam from a
predetermined point of origin along a predetermined line to
 ""'Jill. IlDoIUSU":.' ICA\.I aCUU"M',,'
ICA\.r

unt ...
4.•"
OF SCALE
SETTINGS
0 ..
• 4 , 1 0"

•.I•,

o
N

•
.n + , 04'
, ...
+ .00t
. 001

• . 01'
, '01 + 001

, .. . oos

."
SAM PLE RECORD

ISOMETRIC VI EW Of THEODOLITE PLATFORM

Fig. 3-23. Survey platform.

 0 ,1 n

:: I ~

;Ii

Fig. 3-26. Laser target.

Fig. 3-24. Instrumentation perched on hanging platform, making theodo lite
observations to centerline and springline; note instrument stand tem porarily determined control line. In lieu of moving and repointing the
bolted to tunnel crown (Washington, DC, Metropolitan Area Transit Authority). laser, beam diverter prisms can be used to define the next control
POINT SC- STA . 4Z0 + ZI .. TZI
line (see Figure 3-4).
Two targets, called the front target and the rear target, are
mounted on the shield or tunneling machine, centered on a line
parallel to the longitudinal axis and from 4 to 10ft
the targets mounted on the shield or tunneling machine (see
Figures 3-26 and 27). In the horizontal plane, the laser line is a
chord line or a tangent to the tunnel centerline (see Figure 3-28).
In the vertical plane, the laser line approximates the slope of the
tunnel centerline (see Figure 3-29).
After the tunnel is driven to the end of one laser beam line,
the laser is moved to the next laser position point, and the laser o
tube is set to emit the laser beam along the next pre

.4,,100
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 31

Fig. 3-25. Laser setup in tunnel.

Fig. 3-27. Laser target mounted on shield.

 in plan and elevation (see Figures 3-28 and 3-29). Sev eral
terpisah. The rear target is transparent and the leading target trials may be necessary to find the best location of the
opaque. The targets are intersected by the laser beam, which laser line, and the following guidelines are observed in lo
produces a bright red spot on the target. Theoretical points of cating the laser line:
intersection between laser beam line and targets are cal
culated in advance for each shield location. The theoretical 1. Find the longest unobstructed line of sight to reduce the re
points of intersection are plotted on the targets and con nected quired number of changes of laser positions.
by a curved line (see Figure 3-26).
The shield or tunneling machine is guided by attempting to
maintain coincidence of the actual laser line intersection points i3
with the predetermined intersection points on the target.
n 0/ ........ ", t. I~H4 ....-U •. ·~&.I ~O

Calculation of Offsets to Laser Line from Tunnel Cen

terline. The laser line and centerline of the tunnel are plot ted
.," ,
I "':,,/
I
., 0 II r":~ -,
k ... . I
I
" r.... L'" ~
L'"
. , .. -=< ~
~ ~ ............. ']1
--J, .............. ••0
- - r-.... --'-'l1.ll ..£l • ~ 1\
If
: OISTAIifCf: Q
.If 4 on.III'!"'" IUIUtil" .... 1' 0,0- - ;l
ST
A.414 00" - II 0 '<L •. ".L -"-- . f-._ . 1/ "'-ST"
41". " .U7
",,·~ ... 1t.-6

.. 4 •• ,00
o',,"U c
ill 'c!L» ........
.. ,
c • ~;.l:'" • IZ.O
--- r-.-~.
~ . Sf A.. 4 I ....

~
---- --- - ............... ~O TUN .. £L . =.
1'--
~~
114.,400
.. g

~
........ SfAT IONIHCI 0
~
i ~0
~0
"'1
t--- 0 .. . 0

.. ..
Fig. 3-28. Plan of tunnel centerline and laser line.
00
.
+ •; ~

;; .. ;; & ~~

Fig. 3-29. Profile of tunnel centerline and

j-
n...'.~.l"
to-
.'"
t;--
t-- t-.... / laser line.

32 P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson
2. Select a laser position that is out of the way of passing tun
neling equipment.
3. On tangent and flat curves, the length of laser line is limited
by diffusion of the laser beam (practical limit about 1,000
ft). The beam may be focused at any point from 50 ft to
infinity. At 1,000 ft, the spot can be concentrated to I-in.
diameter.
4. The target offsets for the projected laser line cannot exceed
the size of the laser targets, which is often restricted due
to space requirements for other equipment.
5. At the end of each laser line, an overrun is provided. This
gives the heading engineer the opportunity to make the
change of laser positions and targets at any convenient
time while the shield or tunneling machine operates in
the tunnel section covered by the overrun.
Once the coordinates and the elevation of th e laser posi tion,
as well as the lateral bearing and slope of the laser line, have
been determined, horizontal and vertical target offsets are
calculated as shown on Table 3-7 and Figures 3-28 and 3-29.
Then the target offsets are plotted on the target, as shown on
Figure 3-27. The calculations are performed under the
assumptions that coordinates and elevation of points on the
tunnel centerline are given at 5-ft intervals. Also given are the
tangent bearing and the slope of the tunnel centerline at each
point. If they are not given, they must be determined by standard
survey methods.
Positioning the Laser. The laser has to be positioned in its X,
Y, and Z coordinate positions at the laser position point, and its
laser beam has to be set to beam along the pre
determined laser line. Several ways of mounting the laser tube
are in use. Surveying lasers are equipped with a stan dard hub
for tripod or bracket mounting (see Figure 3-26). The base is
leveled by leveling screws and circular levels. In addition, coarse
and fine adjustment of azimuth and eleva tion of the laser beam
are provided.
Another way of mounting the laser tube is to secure it in side
a pipe with adjustable wingbolts (see Figure 3-19). The pipe, in
tum, is mounted by adjustable brackets to the tunnel lining.
Regardless of the method of mounting the laser, safety
checks have to be installed to alert the surveyor if the laser drifts
off alignment or is hit by construction equipment. A good
method of checking utilizes a control target made of a piece of
metal with a hole just large enough for the laser beam to pass
through (see Figure 3-19). The control target is set on the laser
beam line between the laser and the shield and the laser beam
passes through the hole of the control target. Should the laser
move, the disturbance is quickly noticed.
Automatic Tunnel Boring Machine
(TBM) Guidance
Since the late 1970s, tunnel guidance systems have been
developed that make use of computers and light-sensitive target
screens to automatically indicate all tunnel boring ma chine
(TBM) coordinates and attitude angles. This informa tion can be
displayed digitally. For example, TBMs used on the Channel
Tunnel project were capable of continually mea suring TBM
position and predicting misalignment at the mining face (ZED
260 system).

Table 3-7. Horizontal and Vertical Offsets from Centerline Tunnel to Laser Line

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5

HOrizontal 1 Point P at station 414 + 01.867 415 + 44.367 415 + 54.367 415 + 64.367 416 + 51 .867 Offset 2. Tangen! bearing N3 10' 44"W N257' 79'W N2 54' 3.8"W N2
50' 4"W N27' 48.7'W
3 Coordinates 01 point PN 468 451.359 N 468 593.646 N 468 603.633 N 468 613.620 N 468 701.035 El 445303.325 El 445295.546 E1 445295.035 El
445294.534 E 1 445 290.686
4 Coordinates of intersection N 468 500.369 N 468 500.369 N 468 500.369 N 468 500.369 N 468 500.369 laser line and curve E1 445300.603 E 1
445300.603 E1 445300.603 E1 445300.603 E1 445300.603
5. Distance P - A <= Line 4 -
Line 3 2.722 5.057 5.568 6.069 9917 6 Distance I - A = Line 3 -
Line 4 49.010 93.277 103.264 113.251 200.666
7. Distance A- N;: IAX tan A
2.437 4.637 5.134 5630 9.976
8 Distance P - N "; Line 5 - 7
0285 0.420 0434 0.439 0.059
9 Horizontal laser Itne offset
P_siny
Distance P - M = --- 0.285 0.420 0.434 0.439 0.059 Sin a

VerUcal
Offset 10 Elevation pOint P ·11436 -11.987 -12.538
11 Slope of centerline tunnel at
pointP 0.30% 0.48% 0.64%

12. Elevation of laser line al

point P ~5533 -5.994 ·6.150 13 Slope of laser line 0.30% 0.30% 030%

14 Distance P - N = Line 10-

Line 12 5.903 5993 6388

15 Vertical laser line offset· 5.900 5.991 6.388 P_sin y

Distance P - M '" ---

sin (J

Note: AU dimenSions are in feel.

the target, and the spot so fonned is imaged onto two linear
photodiode arrays. This provides the basis for the position
The positional infonnation is described in X and Y coordi measurement on the X and Y coordinates. The screen allows
nates of the survey coordinate system (left/right and up/down in some of the laser beam to pass through unhindered to a third
the tunnel) and the distance (Z coordinate) in the direction of photodiode array, to measure the angle between the target and the
tunnel centerline. The angle measurements required may be laser beam.
interpreted as roll (rotation about the tunnel axis), look-up or The tunneling environment with its atmospheric turbu lence
overhang (deviation from horizontal), and lead (rotation about a and dust requires the target to cope with varying laser beam
vertical axis). Of the angle measurements, roll and lock-up are intensities and varying spot sizes. The target unit has its own
obtained by the use of inclinometers, m easuring an angle relative dedicated signal processing computer, allowing the incorporation
to the plumbline. of such features as autoranging to compensate for varying signal
The X and Y measurements at the target plane and the gain and averaging techniques to enhance laser spot resolution.
horizontal angle between the target and the laser beam are In curved tunnels, a laser theodolite equipped with servo
measured by a specially fabricated target. The target inter cepts motors driving horizontal and vertical motions, encoders to read
the laser beam and measures the position of the laser relative to vertical and horizontal angles, and distance-measuring capability
the center of the target. The beam strikes a screen at the front of is used. Using a data transmission module on the laser theodolite,
laser direction can be adjusted remotely by an operator in the pennissible tolerance:
on-site office, and the new distance and di
rection is then automatically transmitted to the site-office I. Survey errors of the primary surface survey
computer. Measurements from the inclinometers and target unit 2. Errors encountered during transfer of line and grade from
determine the position and attitude of the TBM. The cal culation the surface to the heading
that is required has been outlined earlier under "Cal culation of 3. Inability of the construction forces to keep the tunneling
Offsets to Laser Line from Tunnel Centerline." To perfonn offset equipment on the indicated alignment
calculations, a site-office computer, complete with display unit
and printer, is usually connected to the un derground system by Experience shows that a deviation of the tunnel align ment
cable. The coordinates of the theoretical tunnel axis are (items 1 and 2 above) of magnitude of 0.1 ft has to be expected
compared with the TBM position and attitude for a heading of 5,000-ft length. Proportionally larger or
data to determine shield deviation from theoretical values. A smaller deviations have to be anticipated for longer or shorter
control unit in the machine operator's cab displays all deviations headings.
of the TBM from the theoretical tunnel axis; these deviations The deviation caused by the inability of the construction
include horizontal and vertical displace ment X and Y in the forces to keep the tunneling equipment on line and grade (item
target location, the predicted X and Y po sition at an optional 3 above) depends on the equipment operation and ground
drive distance, the shield lead, and the shield pitch. The machine conditions. The greatest deviations seem to occur in areas
operator can steer the TBM to confonn with the theoretical where ground conditions vary, eg, where soil lenses occur.
tunnel centerline using the in formation displayed in the control Under nonnal ground conditions, deviation is kept to less than
unit. The machine opera tor can change the direction of the TBM 0.1 ft. In soft soil, however, the deviation may reach 0.5 ft.
by actuating the ap propriate shove jacks and increasing or Therefore, it is apparent that the required accu
decreasing jacking pressure of the shove jacks. These are racy may not be obtained in areas where difficult tunneling
arranged around the perimeter of the shield tail to push the conditions exist.
shield forward by ex tending the jack shoes against the tunnel In rock tunnels, it is possible to reset steel sets in order to
lining erected in the tail of the shield. meet the specified tolerance requirements. Since it is virtually
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 33
impossible to reset lining in soft ground tunnels after the
34 P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson
Robotic Self-Tracking Total Station System for Tunnel
Guidance. Instead of using a fixed laser beam for shieldtunnel is driven, it is recommended that some additional vehi cle
position measurement, a robotic Total Station instrument can beclearance beyond the specified tolerance be incorporated into the
mounted on the tunnel wall with a prism reflector mounted on tunnel design to absorb deviations of the magnitude outlined
the TBM behind the cutting head. The total sta above. If clearance is not provided, realignment of the track or
tion is servo-driven to focus on the prism reflector. At each roadway centerline may be necessary to fit the as built
shove interval, it measures vertical and horizontal angles, and conditions.
the distance to the prism. Two inclinometers measure pitch and
roll of the TBM. The data are transmitted to a computer in the
TBM operator's office, where X and Y devi
SURVEY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF
ations of the TBM and attitude angles can be detennined and
IMMERSED TUBES
displayed for the TBM steering.
Horizontal and Vertical Control
Articulated Shields. On some articulated shields, it is All tubes and bridges have different conditions for survey
impractical to position the target unit on the front shield. This and construction control due to terrain, climatic conditions,
has necessitated the development of an articulation in terface reach of water crossing, vessel anchorage, vessel traffic, density
unit that can monitor the extensions of the articula tion rams of shoreline development, restrictions imposed by military
and use these values in determining the position and attitude of reservations, parks, penal institutions, etc. Short tubes, less than
the front shield in relation to the tail shield where the laser a mile long, usually need three intervisible primary monuments
target is mounted. at each end, with the tube centerline being defined, if possible,
by the line between one centerline monument on each shore.
Tunneling Accuracy and Correction of Deviation. Tubes longer than a mile may need additional monuments on
Typical tunnel driving specifications require that the as-built islands, piers, bridge foot
centerline of the tunnel should be located within the limits of a ings, or other sites near the tube centerline to serve as addi
3-in. diameter bull's-eye centered on the theoretical tun tional control during construction, when construction equip
nel centerline. Thus, for a tunnel heading of about 5,000-ft ment may impede line of sight along centerline.
length, the ratio of precision is These monuments should be tied to National Geodetic Survey
control stations or other primary monuments se lected for the
0.125ft = 1:40,000 project, using dual-frequency GPS to attain 1 :70,000 horizontal
5,000 ft accuracy. Elevation of all monuments should be determined to
The following alignment errors must be absorbed by the Second Order Class 1 accuracy, based on NGS survey
monuments whose historical record confirms little or no
 settlement. To ensure that the elevation of monuments at each
end of the centerline is nominally cor rect, a level survey should
be conducted between the two monuments by "Valley Crossing"
methods, if site conditions permit. (This assumes that it is not
feasible to conduct a level survey directly between end
monuments.) The Valley Crossing method entails two calibrated
level instruments or first-order theodolites sighting
simultaneously in each direc tion to determine elevation
difference between instruments.
If site conditions render Valley Crossing levels infeasible,
closed level circuits should be run from each end monument to
a temporary benchmark established on the shoreline. Then,
during a windless period of slack tide, the elevation difference
between the temporary benchmark and water sur
face should be measured simultaneously at both ends. This
observation series should start one hour before predicted slack
tide, and continue with measurements repeated at 15- min
intervals until one hour after apparent slack tide. Unless the
tube alignment crosses an area of excessive currents, ele vation
difference derived from the water transfer measure ments
should agree with direct level elevation of the TBMs within 0.2
ft. A third option to confirm the agreement in ele vation
between controlling end monuments is to determine the
elevation (referred to the spheroid) of each end monu ment and
each NGS benchmark using GPS survey and com
putational procedures. A disagreement larger than 0.3 ft in any
of these procedures may indicate possible error in eleva tion of
the primary benchmarks, or errors in leveling from the primary
benchmarks to the controlling end monuments.
Mapping. I in. = 40 ft or 50 ft photogrammetric maps with
2-ft contour intervals are prepared over the terminal sites, and
hydrographic surveys of a 2,OOO-ft wide corridor centered on
the tube alignment are conducted along cross sections at
nominal200-ft intervals.
Subbottom, electromagnetic toning, magnetometer, and
sonar side scan surveys are conducted at this time if needed to
locate pipelines, cables, and the like. Surveys may also be
needed to position rigs for geotechnical surveys and borings.
The foregoing photogrammetric mapping and hydro
graphic survey data is composited into mylar map sheets
SHIPYARD SURVEY OF TUBE SECTIONS
t------------t
B Shlp~rd WaY" C I should be scheduled to minimize the effects of differential
covering the project corridor at 1 in. = 100 ft or other suit able
scale with coordinate grid, monument locations, hydro graphic
spot elevations and/or contours, boring locations, notations
indicating horizontal and vertical datum, monu ment
coordinates and elevations, scale bar, date of survey, north
arrow, etc.
Shipyard Survey of Tube Sections. As the final hori zontal
alignment of a tube being laid is solely governed by the tube
geometry and the relationship of its inboard end with the
outboard end of the adjoining tube in place, a math ematical
model of key points on each constructed tube sec tion is
needed to determine fit and angular relationship be tween the
ends of adjoining tube sections. This model is constructed by
first establishing a precise reference baseline in the concrete
ways of the shipyard, affixing temporary sur vey targets to key
points on the tube (before launching), and conducting a survey
to determine local XYZ coordinates of each key point relative
to the shipyard baseline. This survey can be done either by
triangulation or by Total Station sur vey using reflective targets
at the tube key points. In both cases, the reference baseline
monuments serve as origin for coordinates and elevations.
Each key point is observed from at least two baseline
monuments, reading three sets of hori zontal and vertical
angles using a I-sec theodolite or Total Station. Height of
instrument should be measured to 0.001 ft at each instrument
setup (Figure 3-30).
The XYZ coordinates derived from this survey describe the
relationship between key points on an inclined model, because
the tube is in an inclined attitude on the ways. These
coordinates are then rotated to describe the model as it would
be when the tube is laid on its design slope. The key point
coordinates of the inboard end of the tube can then be
compared with the outboard end coordinates of the adjoin
ing tube in place. With this data (especially coordinates of the
two key points on the lateral axis of the tubes), the final
location of the outboard end of the tube to be laid can be
projected, and shims for the joint can be designed if needed.
During steel construction of the tube in the shipyard ways,
the contractor's surveyors will conduct surveys and layout
out-tube centerline and other points controlling construction.
Tube Section
Under Construction (sleel)
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 35
made to determine critical dimensions prior to launching
expansion.
Use of Laser Beams to Align Dredges and Screeding
Barges. A trench of 60-ft width was dredged in the bay,
and a 2-ft gravel foundation course was placed in the
bottom of the trench to serve as the foundation of the tube
 sections (see Figure 3-31). Both the dredge excavating the The principle of dredge control is illustrated in Figure
trench and the screeding barge that placed and screeded the 3-32. The circular beam spot of the alignment laser was
foundation course were guided by laser beams. Dredge
heading accuracy of 3 in. was accomplished, and the
foundation course was screeded to an accuracy of 1.8 in.
4 to 6 in.lmi 850 ftlmi
narrow dimension wide
dimension
-.!.sLOrder .2!!r!!} ' Bo.elln~ --A
o
Fig. 3·30. Survey baseline and procedure used to validate tube sections before
launching (San Francisco BART, Trans-Bay Tube).
These surveys may be by conventional angle-and-distance
methods, with theodolite plumbed so that all surveys are re
ferred to a horizontal plane and basic survey positions within the
structure. Or shipyard methods may be used where a plane is
established, generally parallel with the slope of the ways without
regard to the plumbline. This plane serves as the basic reference
for all surveys and construction done in the tube. In either case,
there must be coordination between the contractor and engineer's
survey so that the location of key points on the structure,
specifically points defining the tube centerline (or control line)
and points defining the atti tude of the lateral and vertical axis of
each end, can be mea sured and compared prior to launching.
In conducting surveys during tube construction, unequal heating
of the sides of the steel tube structure due to sunlight can create
differences in the attitude of tube elements, par ticularly the
angle the ends make with tube centerline. A 15° F difference in
temperature along one side of the tube can cause linear
expansion of about 0.03 ft on the length of one side of a 300-ft-
long tube. Assuming a 30-ft-wide tube, this could cause a
deviation from alignment design at the outboard end of the tube
(when laid) of about 0.3 ft. Surveys
36 P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson
converted into a line beam shape by a fan beam accessory
lens. Dimensions of the beam were
The operator sights back on the narrow laser line to align the
dredge or barge. He assures that the laser line has not shifted
from its predetermined bearing by turning around to see the
beam reflected by a retroreflector mounted on the other shore.
Tube Sections. Between ventilation buildings, the I9,113-ft
length of tube was composed of 57 individually constructed
reinforced concrete sections, each with a contin uous exterior
steel shell. The steel shells were fabricated in a shipyard and
launched prior to installation of the reinforced concrete. The
sections ranged in length from 273 to 336 ft and were 24 ft high
and 47 ft wide. The tube contained both horizontal and vertical
curves, requiring design of a number of curved tube sections.
Of the total of 57 sections, 15 were curved horizontally, 4 were
curved vertically, and 2 sections had vertical and horizontal
curves built in (see Figure 3-33). The remaining 36 sections
were straight.
Surveys During Placement. Tubes were fitted with "gland" or
"snorkel" type pipes and survey towers extend ing from the tube
at the bottom of the bay to the water sur face (see Figure 3-34).
Control of the tube position during placement was
accomplished by using primary control mon uments as
reference and triangulation to the survey towers. On some
tubes, the survey pipes penetrated into the tube, so that the
survey tower location mark in the gallery floor in side the tube
could be observed directly from the top of the survey tower
above the water surface. Other tubes were fit ted with survey
marks in the top skin of the tube, and this also could be sighted
from the top of the survey tower. Prior to placement, the survey
tower and sight pipe were installed on the floating tube with
sufficient inclination of the sight pipe so that, when the tube was
placed on its prepared foun dation, the I8-in. sight pipe would
be approximately verti cal. A vertical collimator (optical
plummet) was mounted on a stand on top of the sight pipe, with
lateral motion provided
50 50 150
o 100
Scale in Feet Vert
500 550 600
-1 50 ________ ~ __________ __ -150 750
~--------------~--------
 PROFILE
Trana-aay Tube
z « <I)
s .... Franclloo aay
Fig.3-31. Plan and profile of Trans-Bay Tube.
tube sections are needed where a new structure is being
to ensure vertical centering over the survey mark at the bot tom
of the pipe, or over the gallery floor mark in the case of "gland"
type pipes. A light was lowered into the pipe for il lumination.
During placement, it was necessary to relevel and recenter the
collimator frequently so that the alignment surveyors could
accurately observe the placement line. After the joint was made
and dewatered, the collimator was again leveled and centered,
and alignment surveyors made the final observation on as-placed
line.
As-placed grade of the tube was observed by taking rod
readings to the top of the sight pipe from level instruments set
up on shore or bridge footing control monuments, or from
survey towers mounted on in-place tube sections.
TUNNEL MONITORING SURVEYS
Repetitive surveys to monitor the stability of existing tunnel or
Laser Transit
projects vertical
or horizontal line -~ ~~ -----:::
across the bay.
San Francisco SaL-
built in the vicinity of the existing tunnel. These surveys are
conducted at frequent intervals, usually at off-use hours, and the
survey data is immediately processed to determine if any
attitude or dimension changes are occurring in the existing
structures as a result of the nearby tunnel operations. Survey
requirements include establishment and/or verification of
primary horizontal and vertical reference monuments; hori
zontal and vertical surveys to transfer coordinates and eleva
tions from primary control into the tunnel; surveys to moni tor
changes in alignment, elevation, and shape in the tunnel; and
photography of tunnel walls to document preconstruc tion
condition.
Level Surveys
To monitor absolute elevation changes in an existing tun nel,
precise leveling is required to periodically transfer eleva tion
from stable benchmarks situated outside of the work area down
to the monuments or markers set to monitor vertical movement
in the tunnel. At least two outside primary bench-
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 37
--
.......-..-
Fig. 3-32. Principle of dredge and screeding barge control.
on
Dredge marks should be used to serve as basic elevation reference,
.' and the record elevation difference between these two monu
• ments should be confirmed by direct leveling prior to level
From
ing down into the tunnel. Disagreement between the eleva
Laser , tion of reference benchmarks indicates instability in one or
.... both benchmarks, and this requires selection of new
reference
benchmarks to ensure accurate level surveys in the tunnel.
Surveys to monitor relative elevation changes between
adjacent tunnel segments require benchmarks or markers
set

t+'
~eam for Horizontal Beam for Ladder on Dredge Llna Control Dredge Haight

Control " Dredge ... ~

Ra il ing
From Laser
L .-..

.... .... .... ~~1' .... , .... Fig. 3-33. Plan and elevation of tube sections with built-in horizontal
and vertical curves.
. ~_ Position M;;kS
in the crown or invert at frequent intervals (10, 20, 50 ft,
I ! t • I:
etc., as determined by the engineer) and precise levels
conducted at frequent intervals through these markers,
recording eleva tions to the nearest 0.001 ft (Figure 3-35).

~-~- Level instruments must be accurately adjusted, and all

markers should be measured at least twice to confirm the
5 miles survey. Relative eleva tion changes along the tunnel may
also be monitored by in stalling, for the duration of the
project, a stepped series of water level gauges using an
open system of PVC pipes and upright sight tubes. This
system enables accurate and rapid reading of the water
level at each sight tube to determine rel ative changes in
the elevation of the structure.
Electrolevel beams installed along the wall or crown of
 a tunnel electronically detect changes in slope in a 5-ft
segment
Fig. 3-34. Tube placement; survey tower and sight pipe.
38 P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson
Fig. 3-35. Determining elevation of crown during deformation
survey; note "bar-code" rod for automatic reading using LeicalWild
NA3000 level.
of the tunnel and transmit this information by wire,
together with time of measurement, to a central data
processor. A string of beams can be installed to monitor
slope data over any length of tube segment, with data
acquisition and pro
cessing timed to meet inspection requirements. Processing
of the electrolevel data provides continual surveillance of
slope data converted to relative elevations, with recording
and alarm capabilities (Figure 3-36).
To measure rotation of the tunnel, difference in relative
elevation is measured by direct leveling between semiper
manent markers epoxied or bolted to tunnel walls at instru
ment height. The markers have an identity number and a
clearly scribed horizontal line or vertical graduated scale to
serve as a reading point. Difference in elevation is deter
mined initially by setting up a second-order level at the
approximate tunnel centerline, midway between the two
markers, and observing the level readings at each wall.
Changes in the relative elevation of the markers, as deter
mined by subsequent measurements, indicate rotation. The
most accurate results are obtained by using wall markers
with a scribed horizontal line, and level instruments with
plane parallel plate micrometers.
Alignment Surveys
Relative alignment of the tunnel is surveyed by installing
alignment markers in a line in the invert or crown of the
tun nel, and periodically resurveying this line by offset
proce dures to determine and measure lateral deformation.
Dis tances between markers are initially measured and
tied to stationing to facilitate identification and reference
to plans. Distances are not normally remeasured during
resurvey.
Deformation
Deformation of the tunnel cross section is directly mea
sured by repetitive extensometer readings between
markers affixed to the tunnel wall or lining. The
extensometer mea sures changes in tunnel diameter on
selected axes of the tun nel cross section (Figures 3-37
and 3-38).
Changes in cross section can also be monitored using
repetitive theodolite survey of targets installed in the
tunnel wall. A survey baseline consisting of markers set at
approxi mately 100 ft intervals is established in the invert
or crown and tied by precise horizontal and vertical survey
to the tun nel baseline and vertical datum. Double-faced,
reflectorized survey markers are established in the tunnel
wall to define the horizontal axis, and in the crown to
define the vertical axis of each selected cross section. The
initial survey con sists of a precise EDM traverse through
the baseline mark ers, using Wild T2002 or an equivalent
instrument with data collector, precision surveying
tribrachs, and targets. During this survey, horizontal and
vertical angles are observed, and distances are measured
to all baseline stations and to all re flee tori zed targets and
 monuments in the walls, crown, and invert. These • Slope and length of the horizontal line joining opposite wall
measurements are made in both plus station and minus targets
station direction so that each wall marker is ob • Length of the vertical line joining crown target to invert
monument

The computer program must be capable of efficiently di

recting survey data into storage, retrieving data from stor
age, and organizing repetitive survey data to enable
plotting, screen viewing, and printout of coordinates,
elevations, lengths, and slopes, together with numerical
differences so that various sets of survey data can be readily
compared.
Fotografi. Photography of tunnel walls is needed to
document preconstruction conditions. This task is
facilitated by constructing a movable dolly that can be
transported eas ily down the tunnel alignment and is fitted
Fig. 3-36. Horizontal electrolevel beams (El Beam Sensors) with a camera mount that positions the camera at
installed in BART subway tunnel to monitor venical movement approximate tunnel cen terline, and enables it to rotate
during tunneling op erations for San Francisco Muni Metro
segmentally. This allows it to take a full round of pictures,
Tumback Project.
making a panorama of the tun
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 39

Fig. 3-37. Using tape extensometer to measure springline during defor

mation survey for San Francisco Muni Metro Turnaround Project.

served by the baseline station before it and the one after it,
providing redundancy to minimize undetected errors.
Distances are measured only during the initial survey and
are not needed during subsequent surveys (Figure 3-39).
The survey data is processed by computer program de
signed to accept survey data and compute the following:

• Coordinates of baseline monuments, adjusted by least

squares • Elevation of baseline monuments
• Alignment marker offsets
• Mean value and spread of elevations and coordinates of re
flectorized wall targets using redundant data
 Fig. 3-38. Tape extensometer in calibration frame (Slope
Indicator Model No. 51811500).
Two-thirds of the system is either tunnel or cut-and-cover
nel wall. Station difference (SO) between camera setups,
in feet, is determined by the following:
SD = 0.8 X camera frame size (mm) X radius of tunnel (ft)
focal length of camera (mm)
Example:
35-mm camera
15-ft radius tunnel
41-mm focal length
Distance between camera stations = 0.8 X 35 X 15 = 10.2 ft
41
At each exposure the camera is rotated 60°, requiring
six exposures per station. Each frame should be Fig. 3-40. Photograph documenting visible condition of tunnel
adequately lighted. The starting frame of each round lining prior to start of adjacent construction.
should include a
40 P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson
Fig. 3-39. Reflectorized survey targets epoxied to tunnel liner ring.
sign indicating station number, scale bar, and arrow
showing direction of increased stationing. After completing
the pho tography, the film is developed and check prints are
made to ensure that image quality, scale, station
identification, etc., are satisfactory. A full set of prints may
be made later if needed. Black and white photography is
generally suitable, but in older tunnels that display rust,
water stains, corrosion, etc., color photographs may provide
better documentation (Figure 3-40).
REPRESENTATIVE PROJECTS
WMATA
The Washington (DC) Area Metropolitan Transit Au
thority project is a 70-mile plus system with an additional
19 miles of track and 14 stations under construction.
construction.
Survey services during construction are obtained by
con tract, with selection of the contractor based on
qualifica tions. The contract surveyors, under the
supervision of the WMATA Survey Coordinator, provide
support as needed to the WMATA Resident Engineers on
each construction seg ment. Specific survey support
includes but is not limited to the following tasks: (1)
Primary and secondary control sur veys; (2) Verification of
the structural contractors' surveys; (3) As-built quality
control surveys to document construc tion compliance to
design; (4) Earthwork and miscellaneous quantity surveys;
(5) As-built trackway surveys; (6) Tunnel cross sections
for determining best-fit track alignments; (7) Final track
monumentation surveys; (8) Settlement and de formation
surveys, etc.
Field and office techniques were developed to
accelerate and simplify the task of surveying tunnel cross
sections and appurtenances. High precision Total Station
instruments linked to data collectors and mounted on
brackets installed in the tunnel walls were used to measure
angles and distances to reflective targets set at critical
points defining the as-built tunnel sections. Specialized
data collection, operating proce
dures, and software were developed to facilitate the
process ing of survey data into three-dimensional
coordinates for rapid comparison with plan values and
prior survey data. The software interfaced directly with
data storage, and CAD plot ting enabling rapid production
of summaries, plans, and charts and selective comparison
of recorded data surveyed over several time frames.
In summary, the application of specialized surveying
techniques and development of unique software made it
pos sible to automate data collection and postprocessing.
This re sulted in substantial increases in survey production
and sig nificant decreases in the time required for
processing tunnel as-builts and quality control surveys
while maintaining es tablished survey accuracy standards.
Due to the digital for mat of the as-built data, best-fit
 realignment calculations were performed more efficiently,
reducing delays in the con struction schedule without
compromising the quality of the finished product.
Superconducting Super Collider Project
(SSC)
The SSC entailed 54 miles of main tunnel and 62
shafts to house this planned Department of Energy project
in Wax ahachie, Texas. Because of the extreme precision
required in collider physics, tunneling and construction
tolerances were unusually demanding and surveying
accuracy requirements challenged the outer limits of
surveying skill and technol ogy. Surveys for the primary
surface networks, and for all tunneling control including
quality control surveys, were the responsibility of the
Architect-Engineer/Construction Man agement
Consultant. Surveys to direct tunneling machines were the
responsibility of the contractor.
In 1990, prior to final siting of the collider, a high order
survey was conducted to serve as a basis for locating the
final footprint of the collider, and for use in design of the
primary
control survey network. This preliminary survey included
es tablishment of 180 monuments, 184 miles of
double-run, first-order levels, and observation and
adjustment of 12 mas
ter GPS positions to Order B procedures and accuracy.
After the survey control network was designed, special
ized monuments were constructed with their foundation
pene trating bedrock. Instruments designed to detect and
measure monument movement due to earth pressures
were imbedded in key horizontal monuments, whose
locations were deter mined by geological studies and the
geometry of the GPS sur vey planned for the project
(Figure 3-41). The horizontal and vertical control
networks would serve as a basis for all sur veying and
construction on the project, including tunneling, and
assembly and alignment of accelerator components. GPS
surveys were conducted between the horizontal control
mon uments using dual frequency full wavelength
receivers, fol lowing procedures slightly more accurate
than those specified for NGS Order A surveys. A
comprehensive level network was conducted through the
vertical control monuments, using instruments and
procedures designed to attain better than first order class I
elevations for project control (Figure 3-42). Transfer of
horizontal and vertical control from the sur face primary
monuments into the shafts and tunnels required
innovative procedures and specialized instruments to
achieve required accuracy, and to complete this work
within a com pressed time frame (Figures 3-18 and 3-43).
A primary underground horizontal control network was
designed to minimize adverse effects of atmospheric
refrac tion in the tunnel. Horizontal control was extended
into the tunnel by forced-center Total Station traverses on
relocat able survey brackets. Azimuth was periodically
reinforced
PRIMARY
HORIZONTAL
MONUMENTS
"" Primary
hari2Q,Jlai ... monument
b S IOkm
plOI seal.
Fig. 3-41. Primary horizontal monuments, Superconducting Super
Col lider Project, Waxahachie, Texas. (Courtesy, Measurement
Science, Inc.)
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 41
by reciprocal gyrotheodolite observations on selected
legs of the tunnel traverse.
Surveys for control of boring operations were based
on the primary tunnel traverse, and they were carried
forward to the boring machines by Total Station traverse
along the tunnel centerline. First Order Class I levels
were extended into the tunnel from the shaft transfer
points, with bench
marks installed at approximate 50-meter intervals.
Accuracy of the underground surveys was ensured by
the network de signs, which included many redundant
measurements, and by verification surveys, which were
carried out at regular in tervals and confirmed by closure
of horizontal and vertical circuits in completed tunnel
segments.
In October 1993, funding for the SSC was
discontinued by vote of the US Senate and House
Conference Commit tee, thus ending one of the most
challenging surveying pro jects in history. Although the
accuracy requirements for the project were substantially
more rigorous than requirements for tunnels for
transportation, water, etc., the experience gained, the
lessons learned, and the attainment of unheard of
construction accuracies may translate into cost and time
economies in the future. Also, it may provoke a
realization by designers, owners, and constructors that
investment in quality surveying can yield rewards in
increased production, and reduced construction claims
 and rework. 370-ft U-wall structure, and they gradually ascend to the
sUrface. The purpose of the project is to provide a more
San Franscisco Muni Metro Turnaround efficient track configuration to handle the expected
(MMT) growth in patronage over the next 20 years, and bring the
The MMT project is a subway extension of the Muni main tracks to the surface in the median of the new
Metro Subway under Market Street. The MMT facility Embarcadero Parkway for a future connection to a Muni
includes an 840-ft twin tunnel section that connects to Metro extension to Mission Bay.
the All surveys for design and construction management
were done by subcontract under the direction of the
design/con struction management consultant. These
surveys include first-order primary horizontal and vertical
control surveys, surveys to monitor stability of roads,
walks, and buildings, deformation surveys in the lower
level BART subway tun-

· '" · ~

·, III ,
, ... QI ,
II: ,
'" ).
,
,
4,,
i,
PRIMARY lEVEL NETwORK
,
,:
Fig. 3-42. Primary level network, Superconducting Super Collider
Pro ject, Waxahachie, Texas. (Courtesy, Measurement Science, ,,
Inc.)
42 P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson

Fig. 3-44. San Francisco Muni Metro turnaround facility.

nels, photo documentation of buildings and BART

Fig. 3-43. Method used to transfer surface horizontal control
down-shaft to tunnel control line, using Taylor Hobson spheres and
zenith plummet, Super Collider Project. (Courtesy of Measurement
Science, Inc.)
Embarcadero subway station, runs under Market Street,
and turns south under the Justin Herman Plaza to the
Embar cadero area (Figure 3-44). The section of the
tunnel under Market Street overlays the San Francisco
Bay Area Rapid Transit twin tunnels (Figure 3-45). The
Muni Metro subway tracks are routed to a tumback
facility in a 1,120-ft cut-and cover section and then to a
tunnels, and as-built surveys during construction. As the
entire site is in an area of imported fill, primary survey
monuments were epoxied into existing sidewalks
because it was felt that side
walk monuments would be less susceptible to horizontal
movement than concrete posts or rods driven into the fill
ma terial. Benchmarks were located on concrete building
foun dations and on the foundation piers of the nearby
Embar cadero Freeway. A first order EDM traverse
connected all horizontal monuments tying into existing
city monuments and NGS horizontal control monuments
in the area. First order levels were run through all
monuments originating from existing BART benchmarks
that have demonstrated vertical stability over many years.
After completion of the primary surveys, the October
1989 Lorna Prieta earthquake affected the project site
suffi ciently to require a complete resurvey of the
primary hori zontal and vertical networks, and later
demolition of the Embarcadero Freeway. The resurvey of
the primary monu ments indicated movement of up to 2
 in. both horizontally and vertically on the sidewalk
monuments, but benchmarks on building foundations
and freeway piers showed no sig nificant elevation
changes.
Prior to starting construction, primary surveys were re
-------------~-
confirmed by a second resurvey of the horizontal and
verti cal networks. Line and grade were transferred into -----------------
the BART subway tunnels; monuments, benchmarks,
tiltmeters, extensometer mounts, and reflective targets ----------------
were estab lished in the tunnels; and initial surveys were SECTION AT MARKET ST
made to serve as a baseline for deformation surveys
during construction. Settlement points were located on Fig. 3·45. San Francisco Muni Metro turnaround project.
the surface in roadways, sidewalks, and buildings to
monitor stability during tunnel ing operations. BART
subway walls and adjacent buildings were photographed During construction, the contractor's surveys extended
to document preconstruction conditions. line and grade from the primary monuments into the
tunnel ing site, using EDM traverse to transfer control
through the pressure lock into the tunnel. From this
survey, the contractor established line and grade control
for ring placement and for laser control of the tunnel
boring machine. Deformation sur veys in the BART
subway tunnels and surveys to monitor roads and
buildings were conducted daily by surveyors work ing
under the direction of the design/construction manage
ment consultant. Quality control surveys were conducted
weekly to verify line and grade and placement of
structural elements.
Surveys for design and construction of the English
Chan nel tunnel between England and France took place
over many years, mainly from 1960 onward. Preliminary
engi neering work commenced after the project was
authorized by a 1971 agreement between the French and
British gov ernments, and proceeded through 1974 until
the project was abandoned when the final agreement
between the two governments was not ratified. In 1981,
Britain and France jointly issued a statement announcing
their intention to pro ceed with the project, and in 1986
the Eurotunnel plan for a twin bore rail tunnel was'

c
selected by French and British governments. Tunneling
began in December 1987 and was completed in 1991.
un.DING LINE (BUILDING LINE "Fitting out," including rail tracks and walkways, power,
_ MARKET ST.
ventilation, drainage, cooling, and servic ing systems,
continued to 1994.
The project consists of two railway tunnels and a
service tunnel 31 mi long with terminal facilities and
yards. Rail tun nels are 7.6-m (24.9-ft) diameter, and the

BART TUNNELS Of 0 -BAY MUD -

service tunnel is 4.8-m (15.8-ft) diameter. Preliminary
survey work for design and construction included
connection of the main triangula tion network between
Britain and France, topographic and detailed surveys of
---- -- ------ -
land terminal sites, geological and geo physical surveys
on land and subsea, offshore and coastal hy drographic
==-":"::=:'::==="==~

surveys, and study of cross-channel level datum

relationships. Global Positioning System (GPS) surveys
----------- --- --'
--- were conducted in 1987 to verify and improve the control
network (see Figure 3-46).
As a basis for computations, neither the French nor
British National Grid nor UTM projections were suitable
for
 of foresights and backsights. Elevations were later
verified by vertical EDM measurements from the surface
upon completion of an ac cess and ventilation shaft.
Eleven tunnel boring machines (TBMs) were used to
ex cavate 3 landward and 3 seaward tunnel sections on
each side of the channel, making a total of 12 tunnel
sections. Surveys for guiding the TBMs were based on
the main control survey monuments in the service
tunnel. Each railway tunnel drive was controlled by its
own independent traverse, and con nected to the Service
Tunnel control via the cross-passages at occasional
intervals and adjusted where necessary.
Steering of the TBMs was controlled by a
Fig. 3-46. Main control network and grid: Channel Tunnel survey. computerized guidance system based on a laser beam
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 43 projected to a screen mounted on the TBM cutter head.
Coordinates defining the position and alignment of the
the project because of inherent scale differences between laser beam at each reset were established from the main
ground and grid distances. A special grid (RTM87) was control and loaded into an on
cre ated using a Transverse Mercator projection with the board computer. This established, by reference to the
Central Meridian passing near the center of the project beam,
corridor. The selection of this grid resulted in a grid 44 P. K. Frobenius and W. S. Robinson
scale factor of 1.000000 along the central meridian, thus
eliminating the need to apply scale factor to convert from the real-time position and attitude of the TBM, which was
ground to grid dis tances and vice versa. A vertical compared with the previously stored Design Tunnel Geome
datum (NTM88) was adopted 200 m below UK National try. Variances between actual cutterhead position and
Vertical Datum to elimi design position were displayed digitally to the TBM
operator, who made corrections to maintain zero variance.
nate the inconvenience of using negative elevations.
Detailed quality control procedures were developed spec
Metropolitan Water Reclamation District
ifying exact routines for setting up and operating instru
for Greater Chicago TARP Project
ments, and recording and processing survey data. Survey
and office work was independently verified at each stage. The Tunnel and Reservoir Plan (TARP) was conceived
Pri mary control and main control traverses were by the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater
conducted to first order standards, and surveys for TBM Chicago (MWRDGC) as the solution to the problems of
guidance were to second order. Surveys in the tunnel pol lution and flooding caused by combined sewer
were initially affected by lateral curvature of sight lines overflows. The plan was the result of a study conducted by
a committee comprising representatives from the State of
close to the tunnel walls, due to refraction caused by
Illinois, Cook County, the city of Chicago, and the
temperature gradients across the lines of sight. These
MWRDGC.
effects were minimized in the tunnel control traverse by
TARP is divided into Phase I and Phase II. Phase I fo cuses
alternating each Total Station position to the op posite
on pollution control and consists of tunnels and pump ing
tunnel wall from its neighbor, and by frequent gy
stations, while Phase II concentrates on flood control and
rotheodolite observations to confirm azimuth. Brackets
consists of tunnels and reservoirs with a capacity of 41
bolted to the tunnel lining provided forced-centering
billion gallons. Construction of Phase I began in 1975 and
capabil ity for targets, theodolites, and gyrotheodolites to
continues to this date. Phase I totals 109.2 mi oftunnels
ensure exact repositioning during the tunnel control
with diameters ranging from 8 to 33 ft. Currently, 63.9 mi
traverse. Horizontal control was extended from the
surface control network into the tunnel by EDM traverse of Phase I tunnels are complete and operational, 20.8 mi
are under construction, and 24.5 mi remain to be
via inclined adits, using forced-center pillars to ensure
constructed. To date, a total of 29 projects have been
exact positioning of tar gets and surveying instruments.
completed for Phase I of the TARP System, at a cost of
This traverse tied into the tunnel baseline and was
more than $1.8 billion.
confirmed by circuit closure through a companion adit.
In the early stages of design, the Engineering
The underground baseline established by survey between
Department of the MWRDGC awarded contracts to map
the adits then served as control for both land ward and
the tunnel cor ridor in both topographic and planimetric
seaward tunneling of the service and railway bores.
formats. In addi tion, second-order monuments based on
Elevations were transferred from surface benchmarks to Illinois State Plane Coordinates and Chicago City Datum
tunnel monuments by precise leveling through both
were set by surveyors contracted by the mapping
adits. Because of the steep gradient of the adits, precise consultants. Each series of mon uments originated at NGS
leveling procedures could not be strictly adhered to monuments and was situated near the centerline of the
without exces sive instrument setups to maintain equality proposed tunnel. While some of the monuments were
 destroyed over time, a sufficient number remained to machine. A different method was used by a contractor
furnish adequate control for tunnel construc tion. The final mining a tunnel under another contract. After establishing
design and contract drawing preparation were done by their con trol at the shaft sites, using a Lietz 4-B Total
various consultants selected by the MWRDGC for their Station with a data collector and a Lietz Auto Leveling
expertise. Property line information and Illinois State Plane Engineer's Level, the construction shaft was dug. From
coordinates were added to the planimetric mapping by the their monuments, the
surveyors for use in right-of-way acquisition.
The acquisition of all right-of-way and permit applica
tions were the responsibility of the right-of-way section of
the Engineering Department, with assistance from the Law
Department and special attorneys as needed. The prepara
tion of legal descriptions and exhibits was done in house or
by the design consultant, but always processed through the
MWRDGC. Easements were acquired for temporary or per
manent construction access as needed, and for subterranean
passage.
On-site construction management was either by
MWRDGC staff or consultants hired by the MWRDGC to
act as field inspection teams. All layout and construction
surveys were the responsibility of the contractors who were
to mine the tunnel. The starting points for their surveys
were the monuments set during the mapping portion of the
pro
ject. These monuments were used by all of the contractors to

establish their own control nets. In order to bring control Fig. 3-47. Laser and beam di verter mounted on tunnel wall for
tunnel boring machine gudiance, MWRDGC T ARP project.
into the tunnel, the contractors used similar, but different,
methods to keep the mining of the tunnel within the toler
ances set by the contract specifications.
contractor made four notches on the top shaft ring, two
One method for bringing horizontal and vertical each on the tunnel centerline and two on its perpendicUlar.
control to the base of a tunnel currently under construction Wires with flagging were then stretched between the
was for the contractor to plumb the construction shaft as it notches, and an optical plumb bob set near the ends of each
was being dug. Once the shaft was completed and the wire to trans
inspectors con fer the centerline and its perpendicular to the tunnel floor.
firmed the plumb of the shaft, a starter tunnel was dug to The benchmark was transferred down using a 300-ft steel
allow for a longer baseline at the bottom of the shaft. tape. The starting station was established as the perpendicu
When the starter tunnel was completed, horizontal control lar, and the centerline was transferred to the shaft wall
was es tablished by the use of a theodolite fitted with a above the tunnel crown. The tunnel grade was transferred
Wild GAKI Gyro Attachment, from which true north to the tunnel wall, 5 ft above the invert, to three pairs of
could be deter mined. With horizontal control set, vertical tunnel spads. This enabled tunnel workers to do line and
control was brought into the tunnel by extending a tape grade con trol with strings and plumb-bobs. The transfer of
down the shaft, a distance of some 300 ft below ground, control from the surface into the tunnel was accomplished
from a benchmark on the surface. A Total Station using a theodolite and a Leica engineer's level adapted for
Instrument was used to extend the control throughout the vertical sighting (auto plumbing).
tunnel. As tunneling proceeded, the alignment was The tunnel boring machine was guided by a laser beam
transferred to a Laserline T-2oo0 mounted to the tunnel mounted on the tunnel wall. Transparent targets were
wall. The laser supplied both horizontal and ver tical mounted about 45 ft apart on the front and rear of the
direction to the tunnel boring machine, by being di rected machine. The use of double targets allowed the operator to
at a target mounted on the machine. Curves were ne check the position and attitude of the machine as it bored
gotiated by the use of diverters for the laser beam, which though the rock.
were mounted on the tunnel wall (Figures 3-4 and 3-47). A procedure was developed to negotiate curves in the
MWRDGC inspectors monitor the alignment by checking mining process using prisms and chord offsets. The curve
into each dropshaft as it is encountered during the was divided into 100-ft segments. This produced a small se
tunneling process. Since the coordinates of each dropshaft ries of small curve portions, except for the beginning and
are known, they can be compared with the coordinates end of the curve. Prisms were set for the 100-ft segments,
computed from the control system established in the and the chord offsets computed. Tapes were placed on each
tunnel, and adjustments of the targets, and the operator kept the laser on the offset
can then be made to the path of the tunnel boring mark while mining the curve. Distortions caused by radial
offset in the laser are compensated for in the laser adjust LEICK, A (1994) GPS Satellite Surveying. WiIey-Interscience,
ment, as it was moved and adjusted every 500 ft. New York.
A Total Station and engineer's level were used to extend MANUAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY, 4th ed. (1980) American Society for
the tunnel traverse monuments through the tunnel. A north Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
seeking gyro was used at 1,250-ft intervals to check the line
MAYO, RS, and RICHARDSON, HW (1980) Practical Tunnel Dri
of the tunnel. As the mining proceeded past dropshaft sites,
ving. McGraw-Hili, New York.
checks of shaft locations developed from the tunnel
traverse were compared with the coordinates of the drops MOFFITT, FH, and BOUCHARD, H. (1987) Surveying 8th ed.
haft sites developed from monuments at the surface. Harper and Row, New York.
Adjustments to the tunnel monuments were made as PRICE, A (1994) "The Anglo-French Tunnel-Main Control," Sur
needed using the com pass rule. veying World (SW) lournal for Land Survey, Hydrographic
The contract specifications stipulated the tolerances al Survey and Land Information Management, Vol. 3, No.1.
lowed in the tunneling process. One contract stated that an RADCLIFFE, EF (1991) "Beneath the Sea: Channel Tunnel,"
error of only 24 in. would be allowed in the lateral POB Magazine, June-July.
alignment over a tunnel length of 9.3 miles. The contractor
THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS (London)
was able to maintain tunneling accuracies well within the
Proceedings (1992). The Channel Tunnel. Part 1: Tunnels.
specifications. On a recently completed project, the largest
error was 2.5 in. over a distance of 4,000 ft of tunnel. WELLS, D., ET AL. (1987) Guide to GPS Positioning. Canadian
Since the tunnel accu racy was checked at dropshaft sites, GPS Associates, University of New Brunswick Graphic Ser
the alignment was cor rected before proceeding. Most vices.
tunneling deviations were at tributed to the guiding of the WORLD TUNNELING (1980) Vol. 3, No.2., Automatic Electronic Pro
boring machine or variations in the rock rather than the file Measuring, London.
accuracy of the surveys. 1994 DATA COLLECTOR SURVEY, POB Magazine, August-Sep
tember.
REFERENCES 1994 GPS EQUIPMENT SURVEY, POB Magazine June -July.
1994 LEVEL INSTRUMENT SURVEY, PoB Magazine, December
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS (1982) Engineering January.
Sur veying Manual (Revised). Manuals and Reports on
1994 SOFTWARE SURVEY, POB Magazine,
Engineering Practice No. 64, New York.
Tunnel Surveys and Alignment Control 45 October-November. 1994 TOTAL STATION SURVEY, PoB
Magazine, April-May.
ANSPACH, JH (1994) "Integrating Subsurface Utility Engineering
into Damage Prevention Programs," Proceedings of the 1994
Excavation Damage Prevention Workshop. National Trans
portation Safety Board.
CHRZANOWSKI, A (1993) Modern Surveying Techniques for Min
ing and Civil Engineering. Pergamon Press New York.
CHRZANOWSKI, A, GREENING, T., and ROBINSON, GL (1994)
Geo detic Control Survey for the Superconducting Super Collider
Project. Survey World (UK).
FALK, MO, and ROBINSON, GL (1994) "Survey Engineering on
the Super Collider," POB Magazine, August-September. FALKEN,
DR, JR. (1993) "Taking Survey Automation Under ground," POB
Magazine, April-May.
FEDERAL GEODETIC CONTROL COMMITTEE (1974)
Classification, Standards of Accuracy, and General
Specification of Geodetic Control Surveys, NOAA, February
(reprinted, January 1976).
FEDERAL GEODETIC CONTROL COMMITTEE (1984) Standards
and Specifications for Geodetic Control Networks, NOAA, Sep
tember, (reprinted, August 1993).
FEDERAL GEODETIC CONTROL COMMITTEE (1988)
Geometric Geo detic Accuracy Standards and Specifications
for Using GPS Po sitioning Techniques, NOAA Version 5.0,
May.
KOR, JS, and SCAPUZZI, D. (1991) "Performing the Master Sur
veys for the Superconducting Super Collider," POB Maga
zine, August-September.