PEMERIKSAAN MALARIA
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PENDAHULUAN
MALARIA
Gejala :
Demam periodik
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EPIDEMIOLOGI MALARIA
HOST
PARASIT
ENVIRONMENT
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ETIOLOGI
Plasmodium Plasmodium
vivax
MALARIA malariae
Plasmodium Plasmodium
falciparum ovale
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Kriteria WHO 2006
Diagnosa Diagnosa
klinis parasitologi
Pada daerah endemis
rendah:
- Derajat terpapar Mikroskop
malaria cahaya
- Demam 3 hari tanpa
disertai penyakit berat
lainnya
Rapid
Pada daerah endemis Diagnostik
tinggi :
Test (RDT)
- demam 24 jam terakhir
dengan atau tanpa
anemia
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Pemeriksaan mikroskopis
Pewarnaan Giemsa
• Sediaan Darah tipis
• Sediaan Darah tebal
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Pewarnaan Giemsa
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Instrumen pemeriksaan :
1. Kaca sediaan, syarat :
- bersih, tidak berdebu
- tidak berlemak/mengandung alkohol
- jernih, tidak kusam/ bergores
2. Mikroskop Cahaya
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Kriteria sediaan darah (SD) yg berkualitas baik :
1. Latar blk pandang di mikroskop jernih
2. Pewarnaan: inti parasit merah, sitoplasma biru
3. SD hrs bersih, wkt pengambilan SD tdk tercemar
4. Vol. drh yg diambil 2-3 tts
5. SD tidak boleh terfiksasi proses pewarnaan
terhambat & berwarna hitam (krn alkohol, spiritus,
panas, sinar mthr, terlambat mewarnai bbrp hari)
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A. SEDIAAN HAPUSAN DARAH
(Thin Smear = hapusan tipis)
• Guna :
1. Menentukan jenis spesies
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CARA PEMBUATAN SEDIAAN & PENGECATAN
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B.SEDIAAN HAPUSAN TEBAL
(Thick Smear)
• Guna :
1. Menghitung jmlh parasit thd sel drh putih
2. Menentukan nilai ambang parasit/kepadatan parasit (utk pasien
rawat inap).
• Prinsip dasar : suatu metoda konsentrasi atau pemadatan krn
bertumpuk-tumpuk. Pada pewarnaan, sel darah merah
dihilangkan Hb nya shg menjadi transparan & tinggal
kerangkanya atau hancur.
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CARA PEMBUATAN SEDIAAN & PENGECATAN
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Pelaporan
1 2 3
Morfologi
parasit
Spesies Perkiraan Stadium
Plasmodium tingkat parasit (ring
parasitemia form,
trofozoit,
skizon,
gametosit)
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Pelaporan hasil malaria
Ada 2 cara pelaporan hasil HDT malaria :
1. Semikuantitatif
2. kuantitatif
a. Semikuantitatif
(-) : tdk ada parasit/ 100 lpb
(+) : ditemukan 1 – 10 parasit/100 lpb
( +2 ) : 11 – 100 parasit/ 100 lpb
( +3 ) : 1 – 10 parasit/lpb
( +4 ) : > 10 parasit/lpb
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b. Cara kuantitatif
a. Tetesan preparat darah tebal.
- Cara terbaik, ± 100/LPB)
-( - ) jk 200 lpB tidak ditemukan
parasit.
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b. Tetesan preparat darah tipis.
- Identifikasi plasmodium,(jk preparat
drh tbl sulit ditentukan)
- Densitas parasit = hitung parasit,
Σ eritrosit yg (+) parasit/1000
RBC.
Σ parasit > 100.000/ul drh infeksi
berat.
= ΣRBC / 1000 x Σparasit = parasit/ul
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Plasmodium falciparum
Ring form, tanpa
stadium matang
Eritrosit normal
Kecil, halus, double
dots
Bentuk marginal
Menjelang tua,
Maurer‘s cleft
Trofozoit dan skizon
Jarang pada darah
tepi
Malaria berat
Sitoplasma parasit
kompak
Gametosit
Bentuk bulan sabit
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Plasmodium
vivax
Eritrosit
membesar
Semua stadium
dapat ditemukan
pada darah tepi
Schuffner‘s dot
Trofozoit
ameboid
Skizon matang 8-
24 merozoit
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Plasmodium
malariae
Eritrosit normal
Bird eye
Trofozoit
band form
basket form
Skizon rosset
(merozoit 8-12)
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Plasmodium ovale
Eritrosit
Membesar
James‘s dot
Oval, fimbrieted
Trofozoit
sitoplasma kompak
Comet form
Skizon 8-10 merozoit
Gametosit
Mirip dengan
P.vivax.
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Tes Diagnostik Cepat
(Rapid Diagnostic Test)
sensitivitas ≥
95%,(100% jk deteksi antigen
densitas Demam parasit malaria
menggunakan
parasit Periodik metoda
>100/ul) dan imunokromatografi
spesifisitas ≥
90%
WHO
Dx.Malaria Mekanisme
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Pan-specific
HRP-2 pLDH
aldolase
Rapid • Protein larut • Soluble • Antigen yg
dalam air, glycolitic terdapat pd 4
Diagnostic Test diproduksi enzyme spesies
parasit dihasilkan Plasmodium
(RDT) aseksual dan
gemetosit
parasit malaria
aseksual.
stadium
aseksual.
muda • Untuk deteksi • Enzyme
Ada 3 antigen target : P.falciparum parasit hidup glycolitic
• Tedapat pada stadium pathway
membran seksual & • Dikonjugasi dg
1. Histidine-rich eritrosit aseksual Pf HRP-2 untuk
protein 2 (HRP-2) • Persisten dan Pv membedakan
setelah parasit • Sensitifitasnya Pf/mix
aseksual dan lebih rendah infections dari
2. Plasmodium lactate gejala klinis dibanding HRP- infeksi non- P.
dehydrogenase menghilang. 2. falciparum.
(pLDH) • Hanya untuk P. • Ada 3 pLDH • Aldolase :
falciparum test yang highly
tersedia conserved
3. Pan-specific • Pan-specific antigen,
aldolase test konsentrasinya
(aldolase rendah
atau pan- sehingga
malaria sensitifitasnya
pLDH) rendah.
• Spesifik
untuk P.
faciparum
• Spesifik
untuk P.
vivax.
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HRP-2
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HRP-2
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Kombinasi HRP-2 dg Pan specific pLDH
KELEMAHAN :
KEUNTUNGAN : Tidak dapat membedakan
infeksi P.f sendiri atau mix.
Pan Malaria band infections.
spesifik untuk genus Di daerah endemis malaria
Plasmodium dg mix-infeksi tinggi,
diperlukan diagnosis spesifik
Sensitifitasnya tinggi
secara mikroskopis
untuk P.f (HRP-2)
Perkiraan adanya infeksi
spesies yang lain dari
Pan Malaria band
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Generasi kedua RDT
Untuk membedakan Pf dan Pv.
Keuntungan Keterbatasan
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Keuntungan Keterbatasan
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Deteksi Pan malaria specific pLDH (genus
Plasmodium: Pf, Pv, Po, Pm)
Untuk
deteksi Deteksi
adanya parasit Keterbatasan
parasit hidup
malaria
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Mikroskopis (+)
ICT (-)
• Bentukan yang mirip plasmodium dalam
darah
• Dibaca bukan oleh tenaga ahli
Mikroskopis (-)
ICT (+)
• Parasitemia < 0,01%
• Parasit berada di deep vein (sequestered di
otak, limpa, hati, plasenta)
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Keuntungan pemeriksaan mikroskopis
Teknisi pengalaman dpt memeriksa densitas parasit 5-10
parasit/µl darah, p.u 100 parasit/µl darah (0,002%)
Dapat membedakan empat spesies dan stadium (ring form,
trofozoit, skizon, gametosit)
Densitas parasit dpt dihitung (monitoring terapi)
Biayanya murah
Kekurangan
Waktu sampai memperoleh hasil 1 jam
P.falciparum : parasitemia berfluktuasi (stadium tua sequestrasi
pd mikro kapiler organ dalam, SD perifer tidak equivalen dg
jumlah parasit sesungguhnya).
Tergantung kualitas teknisi, reagen, mikroskop
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Pewarnaan AO
• SD tipis + pewarna AO
• Diperiksa dengan mikroskop fluoresens
Fluoresensi • Parasit berfluoresensi, latar belakang
biasa hijau
• Morfologi eritrosit dapat diamati,
parasitemia dapat diperkirakan
• SD tipis + pewarna AO
Mikroskop • Diperiksa dengan mikroskop kawamoto
sistem • DX lebih cepat karena parasit terlihat
kawamoto bercahaya
• Lapangan pandang lebih luas
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• Prinsip : adanya protein pada Plasmodium yang
Quantitative dapat mengikat AO akan mengidentifikasi eritrosit
Buffy Coat terinfeksi Plasmodium
(QBC) • Sensitivitas : 92% - 99,13%
• Spesifisitas : 83,5% - 98,4%
Cara Pemeriksaan
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• Spesifik untuk genus dan spesies
• Sensitivitas genus mencapai 100%.
• Sensitivitas dan spesifitas spesies >90%
• Dapat mendeteksi parasitemia rendah (5 parasit/µl
darah).
Keuntungan • Sampel dalam jumlah besar, segera dpt diperiksa dg
cepat
• Interpretasinya mudah
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Faktor yg menentukan mutu pewarnaan sediaan drh :
- PH 7,2
3. Kepekatan lar.Giemsa
2. Scr mikros :
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Kelebihan deteksi parasit dgn pewarnaan Giemsa
1. Dpt menentukan tingginya parasitemia, digunakan:
- menentukan beratnya penyakit
- follow up pengobatan utk menentukan resistensi
- menentukan gametocyte rate utk peramalan transisi
2. Dpt menentukan spesies & stadium parasit dgn akurat terutama
pd thin smear.
3. Sediaan dpt disimpan, shg memberikan keuntungan :
- saat pemeriksaan dpt ditunda
- dpt dikirimkan utk cross check & konsultasi
- dpt digunakan utk bahan pendidikan & pelatihan
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Kelemahan deteksi parasit dgn pewarnaan Giemsa
1. Menghabiskan waktu
a. pembuatan sediaan-pengeringan-pengecatan :
- waktu yg dibutuhkan utk pengecatan 30-45 mnt
- utk evaluasi kultur parasit digunakan pengecatan
kilat dgn Giemsa pekat sediaan tdk tahan lama
& deferensiasi warna kurang bagus.
b. waktu pemeriksaan mikroskopis/pembacaan > 20
mnt per sediaan terutama bila sediaan negatif,
parasitemia rendah & morfologi meragukan.
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2. Bersifat subyektif, tgt keahlian , pengalaman &
“mood” pemeriksa.
3. Secara teknis :
- memerlukan mikroskop yg terpelihara, sumber
cahaya
yg cukup.
- kualitas Giemsa & buffer fosfat terjaga
- kualitas pewarnaan mempengaruhi interpretasi &
identifikasi.
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1. Pra analitik Sediaan darah tipis :
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2. Analitik :
a. Pembuatan SD yg krg baik
diamati
sulit diamati
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b. Pewarnaan:
c. Pemeriksaan mikroskopis :
- pembesaran kurang
3. Post analitik :
- kesalahan mengidentifikasi jenis spesies Plasmodium
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2. Analitik :
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b. Pewarnaan :
c. Pemeriksaan mikroskopis :
- pembesaran kurang
3. Post analitik :
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Comparison of Rapid Diagnostic Tests for Malaria Antigens
PfHRP2 and PMA
PfHRP2 tests pLDH test
test
Pan-specific
Histidine rich protein Parasite lactate
Plasmodium aldolase.
2 of P. falciparum, dehydrogenase.
parasite glycolytic
Target antigen water soluble protein parasite glycolytic
enzyme produced by
expressed on RBC enzyme produced by
all species and
membrane all species
PfHRP2
General test format 2 lines 3 lines 3 lines
Detects P. falciparum Can detect all 4 Can detect all 4
Capability
only species species
Detected; Detected;
Non-falciparum differentiation differentiation
Not detected
species between the 3 not between the 3 not
possible possible
Mixed infections of Appear as P. Appear as P. Appear as P.
P. falciparum with falciparum; falciparum; falciparum;
non-falciparum differentiation not differentiation not differentiation not
species possible possible possible
> 100-200
parasites/µL for P.
Higher for P. vivax
falciparum and P.
Detection limit >40-100 parasites/µL and other non-
vivax; may be higher
falciparum species
for P. malariae and P.
Ovale
Reported; longer for
Post-treatment
Reported up to 31 pan specific Reported up to 1 -3
persistence of
days antigenemia than for weeks
antigens
PfHRP2
Cross-reactivity
between malarial Reported Reported Reported
species
Cross-reactivity Reported, high (up to Reported. low (3.3%
with auto 83% with rheumatoid Not known with rheumatoid
antibodies factor) factor)
Indication of Positive test indicates
viability of No No presence of viable
parasites 55 parasitemia
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Comparison of Peripheral Blood Smear Examination and RDTs for Malaria
Peripheral Smear Rapid Diagnostic Tests
Format Slides with blood smear Test strip
Equipment Microscope Kit only
Training Trained microscopist 'Anyone with a little training'
Test duration 20-60 minutes or more 5-30 minutes
Direct visualization of the Color changes on antibody
Test result
parasites coated lines
Detects malaria antigens
Detects and differentiates all (PfHRP2/ PMA/pLDH) from
Capability
plasmodia at different stages asexual and/or sexual forms of
the parasite
Detection 1 00-500/µL for P. falciparum,
5-10 parasites/µL of blood
threshold higher for non-falciparum
Cannot differentiate among non-
falciparum species; mixed
Species
Possible infections of P. falciparum and
differentiation
non-falciparum appear as P.
falciparum
Quantification Possible Not possible
Differentiation
between sexual Possible Not possible
and asexual stages
Unpredictable efficiency at low
Availability of equipment and and very high parasitemia; cross
skilled microscopists, reactions among plasmodial
Disadvantages
particularly at remote areas and species and with auto-
odd hours antibodies; persistence of
antigens
Status Gold standard Not yet approved by the FDA
Cost per test US$ 0.12-0.40 56 1 .20-13.50
US$
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Comparison of Peripheral Blood Smear Examination and RDTs for Malaria
Peripheral Smear Rapid Diagnostic Tests
Format Slides with blood smear Test strip
Equipment Microscope Kit only
Training Trained microscopist 'Anyone with a little training'
Test duration 20-60 minutes or more 5-30 minutes
Direct visualization of the Color changes on antibody
Test result
parasites coated lines
Detects malaria antigens
Detects and differentiates all (PfHRP2/ PMA/pLDH) from
Capability
plasmodia at different stages asexual and/or sexual forms of
the parasite
Detection 1 00-500/µL for P. falciparum,
5-10 parasites/µL of blood
threshold higher for non-falciparum
Cannot differentiate among non-
falciparum species; mixed
Species
Possible infections of P. falciparum and
differentiation
non-falciparum appear as P.
falciparum
Quantification Possible Not possible
Differentiation
between sexual Possible Not possible
and asexual stages
Unpredictable efficiency at low
Availability of equipment and and very high parasitemia; cross
skilled microscopists, reactions among plasmodial
Disadvantages
particularly at remote areas and species and with auto-
odd hours antibodies; persistence of
antigens
Status Gold standard Not yet approved by the FDA
Cost per test US$ 0.12-0.40 57 1 .20-13.50
US$
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Collection of Blood Smears
1. 4.
The second or Slide must always
third finger is be grasped by its
usually selected edges.
and cleaned.
2. 5.
Puncture at the Touch the drop of
side of the ball of blood to the slide
the finger. from below.
3.
Gently squeeze
toward the
puncture site.
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Preparing thick and thin films
1. 4.
Touch one drop Carry the drop of
of blood to a blood to the first slide
clean slide. and hold at 45 degree
angle.
2. 5.
Spread the first Pull the drop of blood
drop to make a 1 across the first slide
cm circle. in one motion.
3. 6.
Touch a fresh drop Wait for both to
of blood to the dry before fixing
edge of another and staining.
slide.
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Recognizing Malaria Parasites
Blue cytoplasm
Inside a red blood cell
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Recognizing Erythrocytic Stages:
Schematic Morphology
Blue
Cytoplasm
Brown
Pigment
SCHIZONT GAMETOCYTE
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Malaria Parasite Erythrocytic
Stages
Ring form
Trophozoite
Schizont
Gametocytes
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Species Differentiation on
Thin Films
Feature P. falciparum P. vivax P. ovale P. malariae
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Species Differentiation on
Thick Films
Feature P. falciparum P. vivax P. ovale P. malariae
Uniform trophozoites +
Fragmented trophozoites ++ +
Compact trophozoites + +
Pigmented trophozoites +
Irregular cytoplasm + +
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