Dekolonisasi

di Asia Tenggara
Topik 1
Overview
Menjelang pertengahan abad ke-20,
banyak wilayah di Afrika, Asia and Asia
Barat telah “membebaskan” negara
mereka dari dominasi Eropah.

‘Dekolonisasi’ ialah istilah yang digunakan

oleh sejarawan utk menerangkan proses
ini
• Kolonisasi = fizikal (military conflicts,
relocation, etc.) mental (indoktrinasi
agama & asimilasi budaya, sosial dan
ekonomi)
• Peribumi x bebas, tertindas
• Utk bebas, perlu terbalikkan proses
kolonisasi = mental  fizikal (dekolonisasi)
Kolonisasi = destructive

• Internal violence and aggression

• Individualism – self interest
• Neglecting one’s culture –
assimilation
• Inferiority complex – identity crisis
• Abandoning of traditional
territories
Dekolonisasi = constructive

• Meningkatkan kesedaran wilayah2 yg tertindas

• Memahami bhw rkyt dan negara berkongsi
satu warisan
• Membangkitkan semula perasaan
kewarganegaraan & menghargai unsur2
warisan peribumi
• Mengenalpasti kekuatan dlm cara hidup
peribumi
• Menduduki semula wilayah2 tradisional
• “kolonisasi adalah konstruktif
kepada masyarakat kolonial,
tetapi destruktif kpd masyarakat
peribumi….sebaliknya,
dekolonisasi adalah konstruktif
kepada msykt peribumi, tetapi
destruktif kpd msyrkt kolonial”
 What is decolonisation?
• Undoing of colonialism, the establishment of
governance or authority through the creation
of settlements by another country or
jurisdiction.
• Refers to the achievement of independence
by various colonies in Asia and Africa following
World War II.
• Gerakan intelektual = pasca kolonialisme
• Aktif antara 1945-1960  bermula dgn
kmrdkn Pakistan & India pada 1947 dan
Perang I/cina I.
• Sejak 1945-akhir abad ke-20 = 50-192 negara
Decolonization of Asia and
Africa, 1945-1960
• Between 1945 and 1960, three
dozen new states in Asia and Africa
achieved autonomy or outright
independence from their European
colonial rulers.

“The wind of change is blowing

through this continent. Whether we
like it or not, this growth of national
consciousness is a political fact”
Harold MacMillan, British Prime
Minister, speech in 1960
 Dekolonisasi….
• Decolonisation can be achieved by attaining
independence, integrating with the
administering power or another state, or
establishing a “free association” status.
• Rundingan aman, protes tanpa keganasan
@ pemberontakan ganas dan p’juangan
b’senjata
• Atau strategi berbeza digunakan oleh
pecahan2 tertentu
• Neokolonialisasi – x bebas sepenuhnya sbb
masih bergantung kpd negara2 besar dunia.
 Metod dan peringkat dekolonisasi
• Dekolonisasi = satu proses politik, biasanya
libatkan keganasan
• Kes ekstrem: ada perang kemerdekaan,
kdg kala selepas revolusi
• Selalunya ada kitaran dinamik  rundingan
gagal, kekacauan timbul mnybbkn polis
dan militari +/tgn  revolusi yg lbh ganas
 rundingan lagi  kemerdekaan
• Kes unik = tindakan populasi tmpatan
dicirikan oleh non-violence
• Bila berlaku keganasan?
* Kemerdekaan sukar dicapai tanpa sokongan
dari satu atau beberapa pihak luar.
* Motif bantuan diberikan pelbagai:
I)nations of the same ethnic and/or religious
stock may sympathize with oppressed groups,
II)a strong nation may attempt to destabilize a
colony as a tactical move to weaken a rival or
enemy colonizing power
III)to create space for its own
sphere of influence; examples of this include
British support of the Haitian Revolution
against France, and the Monroe Doctrine of
1823, in which the United States warned the
European powers not to interfere in the affairs
of the newly independent states of the
• Dlm referendum, ada populasi kolonial
yg telah memilih untuk mengekalkan
status kolonial mereka, seperti
Gibraltar dan French Guiana.
• Ada juga kuasa Imperial yg berperang
utk mempertahankan tanah jajahan
untuk terus menjadi tanah jajahan – cth
dlm kes Perang Falklands.
• Kuasa penjajah jg kadang-kadang
galakkan dekolonisasi untuk
mengagihkan beban kewangan,
ketenteraan dan lain-lain yg semakin
meningkat di tanah jajahan mereka.
• “The reasons for decolonization were in a
way mainly economic. In the aftermath of
the Second World War, the colonizing
powers realized their incapacity to exert
control over the colonies. Their coffers were
drained by the War. Also the colonies had
started agitating for freedom”.

• Sebab-sebab dekolonisasi sgt berkaitan

dengan ekonomi. Selepas Perang Dunia
Kedua, kuasa penjajah sedar
ketidakupayaan mereka untuk mengenakan
kawalan ke atas negara-negara jajahan.
Tabung mereka telah dikikis oleh Perang.
Selain itu negara-negara jajahan juga telah
menuntut untuk berjuang demi kebebasan
 Persepsi dunia semakin pro-
emansipasi selepas PDI
• Institutionalized collective effort utk perjuangkan emansipasi
melalui Liga Bangsa
• Artikel 22 dlm Covenant of the League of Nations  wujud
beberapa mandat; tujuan: menyediakan negara2 ini utk
berkerajaan sendiri, tetapi realiti = pengagihan semula
kawalan ke atas bekas koloni kuasa2 besar, terutamanya
Jerman dan Empayar Otoman.
• Ini diteruskan melalui Pertubuhan Bangsa2 Bersatu 
diwujudkan sistem yg sama
• PBB selia melalui United Nations Trusteeship Council (UNTC)
• 1960: Declaration on the Granting of Independence to
Colonial Countries and Peoples : all people have a right to
self-determination and proclaimed that colonialism should be
speedily and unconditionally brought to an end.
Apa berlaku?
• Pengunduran Eropah
• Revolusi
• Gerakan kemerdekaan tanpa
keganasan
 Adakah kuasa2
nasionalis tempatan
sudah cukup
‘matang’ untuk
mentadbir sendiri
dengan cara yang
sivil?
• Hampir semua mereka menerima sistem
pendidikan Barat. Ini memberikan mereka
satu kebiasaan dengan perdebatan2
politik dan falsafah Barat. Mereka juga
telah melalui corak penggunaan Barat, dan
ramai yang berkenan dengan cara Barat
ini.
• Jadi persoalan adalah adakah
kuasa imperial Barat ini
kuat/bersedia untuk menangani
gerakan2 nasional ini?
• Jepun dan Itali kehilangan
wilayah2 mereka semasa PDII.
Dalam kes Jepun, ia merupakan
kejatuhan atau kehilangan yang
agak signifikan. Pendudukan
Jepun di sebahagian besar Asia,
sebenarnya bertindak untuk
memperlekehkan pemilikan
Eropah di rantau ini. Ia juga
mendorong sentimen
kemerdekaan.
• Liga Bangsa telah diwujudkan selepas
PDI. Ia merupakan pertubuhan awal yang
mendasari PBB  dan merupakan liga
yang terdiri daripada negara2 Eropah.
• 
• Walaupun ia memperkenalkan prinsip
kedaulatan nasional sebagai satu norma
dalam hubungan antarabangsa, bagi
mereka yang melihat dari luar ke dalam
(from outside to the inside), persoalan
yang mungkin timbul, mengapa kita
harus terkecuali daripada menikmati
keuntungan2 yg diperolehi oleh sesebuah
negara yang merdeka.
•Jadi, bagaimanakah
Perang Dingin
mempengaruhi
dekolonisasi di Asia
Tenggara dan Afrika?
• Perang Dingin di antara USSR dan USA
berlaku dari tahun 1948-1986. Dalam era
persaingan kuasa2 ini, gerakan nasionalis di
koloni dapat memberi penekanan / pemangkin
kepada tuntutan kemerdekaan sebab mereka
mempunyai dua kem untuk pilih.

• Kekhuatiran US tentang penularan

komunisme di kalangan koloni2 yang miskin
memberikan ia pemangkin untuk menyokong
tuntutan2 kemerdekaan yang dibuat oleh
koloni2 ini. Harus diingat bahawa USA sendiri
mempunyai koloni formal yang sedikit, jadi ia
tidak akan rugi banyak jika ia menyokong
tuntutan2 ini.
• Terdapat pergerakan yang menerima
sokongan daripada USSR; dan selepas
mendapat kemerdekaan, mereka
meneruskan hubungan diplomatik ini.
• 
• Kebanyakan daripada koloni2 lain
tidak campurtangan. Kebanyakannya
bergabung membentuk gerakan Non-
Aligned Nations (NAM) untuk
menekankan autonomi mereka.
Dalam keadaan ini, mereka cuba
untuk mendapat deal yang paling baik
dari kedua-dua pihak.
•Namun ada masanya bila
sentimen nasionalis wujud,
ia tidak semestinya berakhir
dengan kemerdekaan.
Kalau kita lihat corak ‘dekolonisasi’ ini amat berbeza.
Ada dua fasa dalam era pasca-perang.
• 1945-1950 – India, Burma, Indonesia. (Banyak
lagi di dunia ni). Ini merupakan era di mana
sebahagian besar empayar Eropah berada di
ambang untuk mencapai kemerdekaan.
Perang Dunia Kedua memberikan pemangkin
kepada dinamika yang sedang berlaku. Dalam
kes Britain, kerajaan Buruh menganggap
bahawa pengunduran yang dignified adalah
lebih baik. Dalam kes India dan Indonesia,
usaha yg kuat perlu dilakukan oleh gerakan2
kemerdekaan untuk mendapat kedaulatan. Ini
melibatkan perang dalam kes Indonesia.
• Selepas tahun 1956 – dalam kes
Britain, ada beberapa masalah
global yang mendorong mereka
untuk mendekolonisasikan empayar
mereka tanpa paksaan. Yg pertama,
ia amat membebankan dr segi kos
yg perlu ditanggung oleh kerajaan;
Kedua, keuntungan2 yang wujud
sebelumnya sudah tidak ada lagi.
Ketiga, tekanan daripada US juga
telah mempengaruhi dasar British.
Sebab2 Dekolonisasi
• Pendidikan dan informasi yg diperolehi oleh
org Asia dan Afrika
• Perang Dunia
• PDI –peperangan di koloni
• PDII – keinginan utk b’perang <
• (economic recovery)
• Peranan Jepun
• tentangan antarabangsa (international
opposition)
• Peranan PBB
• tekanan kuasa besar utk serahkan koloni
• nasionalisme!
Dekolonisasi: Faktor Antarabangsa
1) Perubahan dalam pengagihan kuasa global
• Perubahan Militari
• US menyediakan payung keselamatan kepada
Barat; GB, Germany & France tidak lagi
memerlukan koloni bagi tujuan kepentingan
strategik
• Sebagai sebuah bekas koloni, US ‘menolak’
kolonialisme
• Perubahan ekonomi
• US dominan dari segi ekonomi; membenci empayar
kerana ia menutup perdagangan US
2) Kesan daripada PDII
• AS menyokong pergerakan kemerdekaan sebagai sebahagian
daripada usaha perang
Dekolonisasi: Faktor dalam empayar
kolonial
• 1. Penurunan motivasi ekonomi untuk penjajahan
• Interests: kepentingan perniagaan negara-negara kaya hanya
berdagang dalam Organisation for Economic Co-operation
(OECD); bahan-bahan mentah tidak begitu penting untuk,
industri moden berintensifkan pengetahuan
• Rich-country manufacturing MNCs less concerned with
nationalistic trade policies in poor countries. Could skirt
protectionist barriers via foreign direct investment: “tariff
-jumping FDI”
• Interests: Manufacturing MNCs less concerned with being
seized by nationalistic governments. Unlike extractive MNCs
(oil, minerals), host govts could not capture profit stream
2. Tetapi nilai tanah jajahan
berbeza dari kes ke kes dan
menjejaskan masa dekolonisasi
Generally, settlement colonies (those
with large numbers of white expatriates)
were the last to get independence
• e.g. French in Algeria to 1962;
Portuguese in Angola to 1975
Decolonization: Domestic
factors within colonies
• 1. Independence movements strengthened by
WWII
• 2. Local developments
• Proto-nationalist elite, often trained in
colonial power, seek reform
• Rise of urban middle class, with new
leaders (Nehru, Sukarno). Leaders were first
of all nationalists, but also middle class and
educated in Europe
• Nationalist movements attract mass
following (India, Indonesia)
RESULTS of Decolonization – Differing
perspectives

• Regions of the world became “free”.

• the indigenous elite often replaced
the colonial elite with little change
for the masses.

• Decolonization generates debate and

controversy
Decolonization and political
instability
i) Post-World War II decolonization
movement was too rushed 
created unstable regimes 
causing war between and within
the new independent nation-
states
ii) Instability : the result of problems
from the colonial period
***Tribal, racial, religious
differences
Economic Effects

Problems remained such as

• Economic Dependency on
the West
• Limited Industrialization &
Economic Development
How Neo-colonialism was/is
carried out:
• 1. Cultural Ties:
• i) Language of imperialism keeps links with old
imperial country
• ii) Organisations like British Council/Sports (Cricket,
Rugby, Commonwealth Games) keep up influence of
UK

• 2. Political ties:
Both UK & France set up softer versions of old Empires
when they set “clubs” for the newly independent
states:
Eg UK has the Commonwealth (meet each year,
develops and keeps economic, cultural, political links
with new states. UK can “advise” them on policy)
 3. Military Contacts
• Especially in the early years of independence.
• These keep a military presence in the area for
the old imperialist power.
• Eg. Cuba: US base at Guantanamo
• South Vietnam: French, then US in 1950s
• UK kept bases for initial years in Nigeria,
Sierra Leone, Malaysia and (still in 2000)
Guyana, Cyprus, ..)
• French still have 10,000 troops worldwide in
ex colonies.
• Old imperialist will intervene in ex-
colonies to “support” new regimes
(France sends troops 5 times to ex
colonies to remove governments 1960-
80 in Africa, UK also have troops in
Sierra Leone)
• Both used their navies to patrol and
exert influence along African & Asian
coastlines in 1960s and 70s.
• These allowed the old mother countries
to intervene almost at will and to make
the new (client) govt dependent on
them to stay in power
4. “Aid”
• Aid is used to tie a new state to the old mother state
by
• i. Blunt method: no support for the mother country (eg
in UNO, or in Cold War or in choosing mother country
companies = no aid
• ii. More subtle method: aid given by mother country
but the ex colony is told what to spend it on: usually
goods produced by the mother country:
• Eg UK cars in old UK colonies, French cars in old
French colonies
• But by 1970 Japan soon captured the markets in
most consumer goods
• UK & France pressured ex colonies to spend aid on
what they still made best: weapons: guns, tanks,
aircraft
Continue ‘Aid’
• Therefore aid was now used to keep
armaments industries of Europe in
business
• Result: new states often were poor but
had new weapons. They want to use them
• = wars with new neighbours or to put
down opposition in own country
• = more weapons needed
• = more business for mother country .....
• Eg Biafran war in Nigeria (1969)
5. Economic Ties
• i. Cash crop economies in many ex
colonies ensure the new states cannot
escape global economy
• Eg Cuba & sugar; Kenya, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) &
tea
• This gives great influence to multinationals
who had invested in colonial times
• Eg Cuba: US United Fruit Company
• Kenya: UK company: BAT
• = controlled prices, so controlled money
earned by new country especially when the
country had one main crop only
Continue…
• Where new countries nationalised these old
imperial investments they were “punished”:
• Eg US boycott of Cuba
• 1956 UK & France invade Egypt when Egypt
nationalised the Suez canal from UK and France)

• i. Companies from the old mother country

had existing links & contact and were
usually the first choice for new economic
development (eg the ex French colonies in
Africa adopt French companies and
Technology for their colour TV systems in
1970 ́s)
6. The Role of the European
Community
• The EC was set up in 1956. The old colonial powers of
France, Netherlands, Belgium were founder members, UK
had joined by 1972. The EC had a common policy of
dealing with the third world (ie mainly their ex colonies)
which would tie them to Europe economically:

• 1963 Yaoundé Convention: (Focus was on newly independent

French colonies)
• a) Markets guaranteed in Europe for 3rd world products [eg
coffee, cocoa, uranium] from specified states (mainly ex
French colonies)
• b) Europe would lend $1bn to be spent on:
• European (mainly French) industrial products
• European grain (France = main grower) but at European
prices (higher than world price)
• New construction projects, using European companies