Bioavailabilitas

Mineral
Potassium in a Nutshell
Concepts of Bioavailability
 Define Bioavailability

• That which becomes bioavailable

• Fraksi (atau persentase) dari nutrisi yang
diserap bermanfaat bagi tubuh
Sejauh mana terserap tersedia untuk
sistem
Definition

Ketersediaan hayati adalah

penilaian paska penyerapan dari
berapa banyak nutrisi yang telah
diserap menjadi fungsional bagi
sistem
 Bioavailabilitas
Bioavailabilitas didefinisikan sebagai proporsi
mikromineral total dalam pangan, makanan
atau menu yang diutilisasi untuk fungsi-fungsi
tubuh normal, dan akan tergantung pada
bentuk kimianya dalam lumen usus yang
diberikan pada sel-sel absorptive (dalam hal
ini absorbabilitasnya).

Mikromineral tersebut harus dalam bentuk

yang dapat diambil oleh sel-sel mukosa
Bioavailabilitas (lanjutan)
Pada beberapa mineral, terutama besi, efisiensi
penyerapan merupakan lintas utama untuk
mempertahankan homeostasis.
Mineral lain, Zn dan Cu, keseimbangan dipertahankan
melalui pengaturan ekskresi endogen.
Dengan demikian, ada dua hal yang perlu dipahami
dalam bioavalabilitas mikromineral :
Bioavailabilitas yang diukur bukanlah semata-mata
milik atau sifat dari pangan atau makanan
melainkan respon seseorang terhadap menu atau
pangan,
Bioavailabilitas menggambarkan integrasi berbagai
komponen dari proses-proses dimana suatu zat gizi
menjadi tersedia secara biologis.
 First basic law of nutrition:
Tidak ada nutrisi
yang diserap dan
digunakan
sepenuhnya jika
diberi makan
Steven Blezinger
 The fraction of the total amount absorbed that performs a
function

Digestion

Absorption

Blood Transport
Which is the most
critical phase for
minerals? Liver and kidney excretion

Losses along
Membrane transport the way

Intracellular movement

Functional Site
Recall

Nutrisi dianggap di luar

tubuh sampai melewati
penghalang usus
 The amount that gets absorbed depends on:

Extrinsic Factors Digestibility of the food source

Solubility of the mineral

Elements in the food source that hinder
or facilitate absorption

With a focus on the organism, bioavailability

depends on:
Age
Health
Nutritional state
Intrinsic Factors Physiological state
Genetic predisposition
Gender
Developmental stage
Species
 Bioavailabilitas (lanjutan)

Mempertimbangkan berbagai faktor, Southgate

menjelaskan bahwa :
Bioavailabilitas = ∫ D.∑E/I .T.U
dimana,
D = proporsi mikromineral total yang dikonversi ke
bentuk yang dapat diserap.
∑E/I = rasio faktor pelancar terhadap faktor penghambat
penyerapan.
T = proporsi mikromineral yang ditransport.
U = proporsi mikromineral yang ditranspot yang
kemudian diutilisasi untuk fungsi-fungsi metabolik
normal.
 Bioavailabilitas (lanjutan)

Harus diingat :
• Pada beberapa keadaan, proporsi yang
ditransport identik dengan proporsi yang
diutilisasi.
• Pada beberapa mikromineral, proporsi yang
ditransport merupakan fungsi dari status gizi
seseorang.
 Components of Bioavailability
• Digestion
Absorptive
• Absorption
Phase
• Liver surveillance
• Transport
• Transmembrane movement Assimilation
• Intracellular movement Phase
• Target binding
Why Not Absorption Alone as an index of Bioavailability

As pointed out by O’Dell, assimilation may be a major part of a mineral’s

bioavailability and needs to be assessed separately

Absorption % Retention %a
75Se as selenite 92 <50

75Se as selenomethionine 96 >80

aArbitrary units

2-picolinic acid enhances zinc absorption in rats by nearly 60%. But,

also increases zinc excretion so there is no net effect on retention and
hence no increase in bioavailability
Assessing bioavailability by the slope ratio method

Assessing Phytate (in soy flour) as a factor in Zinc bioavailability

Zn carbonate

Zn Beef
Beef/carbonate = 0.97
Body wt
of 3 wk Soy/carbonate = 0.31
old chicks
Zn Soy flour

4 6 8 10 14

Zn in the diet (mg/kg)

Quantifying Bioavailability

% Bioavailable = % absorbed x % assimilated x 10-2

If a diet contained 5 mg of a metal ion and 42% of the 10% absorbed

was retained in the system, the % bioavailable would be

which means mg was rendered functional

420 2.1
0.21
42
0.42
.021 4.2
Solution

5 mg 4.5 mg (90%) stays in lumen

Intestine

0.5 mg absorbed (10%) % BA = %Abs x %Fun x 10-2

= 10 x 42 x 10-2

Functional site = 4.2 or 0.21 mg of the 5 mg

taken in the diet

0.21 mg (42%) of absorbed becomes functional

0.29 (58%) of absorbed is non-functional

 An Overall Assessment of Minerals

• What they are (chemistry)

• What they do (biochemistry)
• How they get in our body (absorption)
• How they get into cells (transport,
assimilation)
• How efficient are they (bioavailability)
• How are they regulated
Chemistry
1. Chemical properties relative to function
1. Ionization
2. Solubility
3. Valence
4. Electronic configuration
Biochemistry
1. Biochemical properties relative to function
1. Macro vs microminerals
2. Enzyme cofactors
3. Pathway components
4. Crystallization
5. Binding proteins
Absorption
1. Solubility
1. Mucins, ligands, pH
2. Valence
3. Transport proteins (intestinal sites)
4. Cytosolic transport and storage
5. Export factors
Transport and Assimilation
1. Transport proteins in plasma
2. Membrane receptors and channels
3. Membrane transport
1. Simple diffusion
2. Mediated diffusion
3. Active transport
4. Receptor mediated endocytosis
4. Cytosolic transport
1. Vesicles
2. Metallochaperones
Regulation
1. Regulation of iron absorprtion
1. Iron control of ferritin and transferrin receptor (IRPs)
2. Hemochomatosis factors hepcidin and HFE
2. Regulation of calcium absorption
1. Control of calbindin and CaT1 by dihydroxy-vitamin D3

Bioavailability
1. Ways to measure mineral bioavailability
Efisiensi penyerapan mikromineral
dari menu makanan :
Mikromineral Persen
Chromium <5
Copper 25 – 70
Haem iron 20 – 30
Inorganic iron 0 – 15
Manganese <5
Selenium 50 – 95
Zinc 5 - 50
Faktor pelancar dan penghambat penyerapan
mikromineral (Sandstrom, 1998) :
Mineral Pelancar Penghambat

Cr Histidin, asam Fe, Zn

nicotinat
Cu Protein hewani, Fitat, Fe, Zn
fruktosa
Fe Daging, vitamin C Fitat, poliphenol, Ca

Mn Ca, P, Fe, fitat

Se Thiol, vit.C Metionin, P, logam

berat
Zn Protein hewani Fitat, Fe
Measurements of Bioavailability
Metode untuk menilai Bioavailabilitas
mikromineral (Fairweather-Tait, 1998) :

Chemical balance
Rate of repletion, growth rate
Plasma appearance
Isotope techniques :
a. Faecal monitoring
b. Whole body retention (gamma-emitting isotopes)
c. Plasma appearance
d. Urine appearance (double lable method)
e. Hemoglobin incorporation (Fe)
In vitro techniques (e.g. solubility, dialysability,
cell line)
 1. Metode Chemical balance

Pengukuran Intake (I) dan Ekskresi di Feses (F) dan

Urine (U)
Absorption (A) = I – F
Retention (R) = I – (F + U)
Masalah :
Hanya mempelajari menu keseluruhan
Sulit menandai awal-akhir waktu pengumpulan
data
Sulit memisahkan mineral asal menu dan asal
endogen (Cu, Zn)
2. Metode Rate of repletion,
growth rate
Metode ini ditawarkan karena metode pada
hewan dianggap sudah kurang tepat akibat
perbedaan spesies.
Masalah :
• Masalah kode etik
• Sulit mencari sukarelawan
Contoh :
Bioavailabilitas Fe dinilai dgn the Rate of Hb
repletion
Bioavailabilitas Zn dinilai dgn growth rate
3. Metode Plasma appearance

Banyak dipakai menilai bioavailabilitas obat.

Diukur penampakan di plasma setelah diberikan dosis

mineral tertentu, lalu diukur luas dibawah kurva.

Karena kandungan mineral didalam makanan tidak

sebesar dosis yang diberikan, metode ini lebih cocok
untuk mengukur suplemen atau pangan-fortifikasi.

Hasil lebih akurat diperoleh apabila dosis diberikan

simultan lewat oral dan intravena.
4. Metode Isotope techniques
Radioisotop dan isotop sudah banyak
digunakan mempelajari bioavailabilitas
mineral.

Isotop stabil diukur dgn mass spectrometric

techniques
a. Faecal monitoring
b. Whole body retention (gamma-emitting isotopes)
c. Plasma appearance
d. Urine appearance (double lable method)
e. Hemoglobin incorporation (Fe)
 5. Metode In Vitro
Banyak teknik in vitro yang digunakan untuk
menilai bioavailabilitas mineral (solubility,
dialysability, cell line).

Masalah :
Variabel yang berkaitan dgn tubuh dihilangkan, padahal
penyerapan mineral banyak terkait dgn faktor Host.
Meski diupayakan seperti keadaan sebenarnya pada sel-
absorptive, tetap tdk mungkin sama dgn keadaan in vivo.
 Determinan Bioavailabilitas
Bioavailabilitas zat gizi ditentukan oleh 3 tahapan
dasar :

– Absorbability, yaitu proporsi yang tersedia di lumen

untuk uptake kedalam sel mukosa; dipengaruhi oleh
bentuk kimia, komposisi makanan, sekresi gastrik
dan intestinal, microflora usus..
– Transfer mukosa ke dalam sirkulasi sistemik,
dikontrol oleh faktor fisiologi, status gizi, struktur
dan fungsi sel mukosa.
– Utilisasi dalam tubuh, dipengaruhi faktor fisiologi,
status gizi, intik zat gizi lain, kehilangan endogen
(urin, feses), bentuk kimia.
 Interaksi mineral
Interaksi mineral terjadi pada ion-ion yang
bermuatan sama dan berukuran sama.
Jenis interaksi :
Interaksi antagonistik : keberadaan salah satu mineral
akan mengurangi gerakan atau efisiensi biologi dari
mineral lainnya.
Cth. Interaksi Fe-Zn, Zn-Cu
Interaksi sinergistik : dua mineral berperan secara
komplementer.
Istilah sinergistik digunakan untuk menjelaskan interaksi
dimana satu mineral menghemat atau menggantikan
peran mineral lainnya; atau dua mineral secara mutual
(saling menguntungkan) memperlancar fungsi biologi
tertentu.
Cth. Ni2+, Co2+, dan Mn2+ dapat menggantikan kation asli
pada beberapa metalloenzim.
Juga kerjasama kalsium dan strontium dalam mineralisasi
tulang
Jenis interaksi (lanjutan) :
Interaksi Kombinasi : Model interaksi
mineral yang paling sederhana adalah satu
mineral dengan satu mineral lainnya, yaitu
satu mineral melawan atau mendukung
kerja mineral lainnya. Apabila ada 3
mineral atau lebih dalam suatu interaksi
maka kemungkinannya jauh lebih
kompleks.
Contoh sederhana yang interaksinya
bersifat mutual adalah kalsium, fluor, dan
strontium, semuanya berperan dalam
meningkatkan kekuatan mineral tulang.
Level Interaksi Mineral-mineral
(Solomons, 1988) :
Dalam makanan dan minuman.
Dalam saluran usus.
Cth. Fe-Zn.
Pada level jaringan.
Cth. Fe dlm makanan tinggi
mengurangi kadar Cu dalam hati.
Pada level transport dalam
organisme.
Pada jalur eksresi
 Mineral Mineral
Interactions

Rule: Seldom will one mineral function in

isolation apart from other minerals
•Interaksi negatif ion logam adalah salah satu faktor
makanan utama yang menyebabkan bioavailabilitas
nutrisi ini rendah.
•Interaksi signifikansi gizi termasuk natrium-kalium,
kalsium-magnesium, mangan-besi, besi-tembaga, dan
seng-tembaga.
•Interaksi ini mencapai potensi penting ketika logam
pertama dari setiap pasangan yang tercantum di atas
berlebih dan yang lainnya berada di batas bawah
persyaratan.
•Interaksi unsur jejak dengan nilai praktis tertinggi dalam
nutrisi manusia adalah efek negatif dari kelebihan seng
pada ketersediaan hayati tembaga.

O’Dell, 1989
 Elemen jejak berbagi jalur serap bersaing
untuk penyerapan, dan
ketidakseimbangan dalam rasio antara
elemen jejak (Fe / Zn, Zn / Cu, Fe / Mn)
dalam formula dapat mengganggu
penyerapan elemen jejak. Faktor-faktor
ini perlu dipertimbangkan ketika
menetapkan batas atas untuk elemen
penelusuran dalam rumus

Lonnerdal, 1989
Pedoman untuk persiapan elemen jejak
esensial untuk penggunaan parenteral.
Pernyataan oleh panel ahli. Departemen
Makanan dan Nutrisi AMA.

[No authors listed]

PMID: 107339 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
 How do Minerals fit into life?
The two “Inters”

Interlinked

Interdependence
 K

Mg P

Cr I

Ca
 Mineral Mineral Interactions
Macro Symptom Comment
Na – K Hypertension K reduced hypertension

Ca – P Skeletal growth Diet 1.0 – 1.3 considered ideal

because endogenous P is high

Ca – Mg Soft tissue calcification High Ca blocks Mg absorption

P – Mg Growth rate retarded High P also blocks Mg absorption

No interaction
1s2
Mg K
1s22s2 [Be] 1s22s22p1
1s22s22p6[Ne]
Ne (3s2)
Ne (3s23p6) [Ar]
Ca
Ar (4s2)

P Na
No interaction

Why do we know so much more

about Ca interactions with other minerals?
 7 3.2% Ca, 0.8% P

Guinea Pigs
6
Daily Wt
gain (g) 0.9% Ca, 0.8% P
5 (normal)

3
2.5% Ca, 1.7% P

1
1 g/kg 2.4 g/kg 4.0 g/kg

0 30 60 120 180 240 360 600 1200

Mg K
Log of Dietary Mg (mg/100g)

Ca O’Dell and Morris, 1963

P Na
 =O PO
OPO3 =
Micro-mineral Interactions 3

H OPO3=

H H
Phy-P Fe Mn = O PO
3 H
=O PO
OPO3 =
3
Ca
Phytic Acid (phytate)
Zn Cu Se I

Mo S
S S S S

Mo Cu Mo
S S S S

Tetrathiomolybdate
 Human Studies

Iron impedes Zn absorption in human

subjects. Subjects given 12 mg Zn
Zinc Absorption

and the indicated amount of iron in an

aqueous solution.

Iron has no significant effect on the

Copper Absorption

absorption of Cu by human subjects.

Subjects given 3 mg Cu and the
indicated amount of iron in an
aqueous solution.

Conclusion: Oral Fe supplements may

impair zinc absorption in a dose-
dependent manner, but have no effect on
Iron (mg) Cu absorption
Troost et al, Am J. Clin Nutr, 2003
Zn –Cu Interactions in Chicks
(O’Dell, 1967)

500

450

Body 400
Wt.(g)
350

300

250

200

150

100
Zn Supl. 28 28 84 84 140 140
Cu Supl. -- + -- + -- +
Mg/Kg
Human Studies

Hypocupremia induced by zinc therapy in adults.

Prasad AS, Brewer GJ, Schoomaker EB, Rabbani P.
JAMA 1978 240:2166-2168

Hypocupremia occurred in an adult with sickle cell anemia who

received zinc as an antisickling agent for two years. The
hypocupremia was associated with microcytosis and relative
neutropenia. Administration of copper resulted in an increase in
RBC size and leukocyte counts. We have since observed
hypoceruloplasminemia of varying degrees in several other
sickle cell anemia patients who were receiving oral zinc therapy.
This complication was easily corrected by copper
supplementation.
 Phy-P Fe Mn

Ca

Zn Cu Se I

Mo S

Excessive intake of Mn interferes with Fe metabolism. And, excessive

amounts of unbound Fe intracellularly interferes with Mn incorporation
into enzymes.
Implications of Mineral-Mineral Interactions Intracellularly

Many metalloproteins can bind diverse metals, but living

cells connect only with their cognate metal cofactor.

Yeast Mn superoxide dismutase (SOD2) binds Mn over Fe.

Preference is determined by the relative bioavailability of
these 2 ions within the mitochondria. Normally, most
mitochondrial Fe is unavailable to SOD2. But, when yeast
have mutations in the genes that transport and store Fe, Fe
accumulates in a reactive form that potently competes with
Mn for binding to SOD2, inactivating the enzyme.

Under normal circumstances, a small pool of SOD2-reactive

Fe exists in homeostasis with bound Fe and has access to
SOD2 when mitochondrial Mn is low. Controlling this
reactive Fe pool is critical to maintaining SOD2 activity and
has important potential implications for oxidative stress in
disorders of Fe overload.
 Fe Storage FeSOD

Fe MnSOD
Fe Fe
MnSOD
Vesicle
X Fe Mn
Fe
Fe
transporter X
Iron chaperone
Mn
Mn
Fe Fe

Fe
 Phy-P Fe Mn

Ca

Zn Cu Se I

Mo S
 Cu/Fe Interactions
Summary of Key Observations:

Yeast cells lacking Cu are unable to transport iron

Iron fed to anemic rats only partially restored

hemoglobin levels in the blood.

Cu deficient animals accumulate stores of iron in

the tissues
Cu deficiency lowers the level of enzymes that oxidize
iron, viz., ceruloplasmin
 Phy-P Fe Mn

Ca

Zn Cu Se I

Mo S

A slight excess of Cu (or Zn) has no effect on Se

A large excess (100 times) of Cu or Zn has been shown to cause

exudative diathesis in chicks that was corrected by Se supplementation.

Absorption across the intestine is not a factor, but rather internal

distribution of Se to the various organs
 Phy-P Fe Mn

Ca

Zn Cu Se I

Mo S

Na2SO4 competes with Na2SeO4, as shown by the SO4

inhibiting the action of the SeO4 in correcting white muscle
disease in lambs.

Puzzling: K2SO4 added to selenomethionine or selenocysteine, the 2

most common dietary sources of Se, did not accentuate the signs of Se
deficiency in lambs.
 Selenium Incorporation into Protein

[Se]methionine
Serine
Absorption
Serine-tRNA [Se]methionine-tRNA
ATP

SeO3 [HSe-PO3] [Se]cysteine-tRNA Selenoprotein (GPx, etc)

Assimilation
SO4
[Se]cysteine-tRNA

Ionic radii:
Se = 1.9 nm
S = 2.0 nm [Se]cysteine
Covalent radii:
Se = 1.03 nm
S = 1.07 nm
 Phy-P Fe Mn

Ca

Zn Cu Se I

Mo S

Selenium is required for the enzyme Iodothyronine Selenodeiodinases

Evaluation of influence of selenium, copper, zinc and iron concentrations
on thyroid gland size in school children with normal ioduria Brzozowska
M, Kretowski A, Podkowicz K, Szmitkowski M, Borawska M, Kinalska I.
June, 2006

In spite of proper iodine prophylaxis, there was a 7% rate of goiter

occurrence in school children suggesting factors other than iodine
deficiency influence goiter development. Low concentration of Fe
and/or Se were found in the serum of children with goiter in spite of
their treatment with thyroxine. There may be additional factors
influencing the effectiveness of this treatment.
Iodine and selenium deficiency in school-children in an endemic goiter area in
Turkey.
Aydin K, Kendirci M, Kurtoglu S, Karakucuk EI, Kiris A. 2002

Endemic goiter is one of the most important health problems in Turkey. The
effects of iodine and Se levels on thyroid gland size and thyroid functions is
the objective. Of 73 healthy children 7-12 years old, 38 girls and 35 boys, 32
(43.8%) showed goiter by palpation, 56 (76.7%) by ultrasonography. Serum
T3 and TSH levels were in the upper normal range, and T4 was normal, but
thyroglobulin was higher than normal. Serum Se was 30.84 +/- 23.04
microg/l, and urinary iodine was 3.91 +/- 3.77 microg/dl, appropriate for
moderate iodine and Se deficiency. Thyroid volumes correlated negatively
with Se levels, and not at all with urinary iodine and thyroid hormones. In
conclusion, children in this area had significant goiter problems, probably due
to the iodine as well as Se deficiencies.
 Selenium and the Control of Thyroid Hormone Metabolism
Aug 2005, Vol. 15, No. 8 : 841 -853
Josef Köhrle

Thyroid hormone synthesis, metabolism and action require adequate availability of

iodine and Se, which affect homeostasis of thyroid hormone–dependent metabolic
pathways.

The three selenocysteine-containing iodothyronine deiodinases constitute a novel

gene family. Se is retained and deiodinase expression is maintained at near normal
levels in the thyroid gland, brain and other endocrine tissues during Se deficiency,
thus guaranteeing adequate levels of T3 the active thyroid hormone.

While some Se enzymes are impaired in patients with cancer and other
disturbances, Se-dependent deiodinase function might still be adequate. However,
Se status could be responsible for altered thyroid hormone metabolism. Limited or
inadequate supply of iodine and Se leads to complex rearrangements of thyroid
hormone metabolism enabling adaptation to unfavorable conditions
Metode Menilai Interaksi
Mineral
Metode Menilai Interaksi Mineral
(Solomons, 1988) :

Studi keseimbangan metabolik

(metabolic balance study).
Uji penyerapan makanan tunggal
(single-meal absorption tests).
Kadar mineral dalam jaringan dan
cairan biologi.
Respon fungsional.
 Karakteristik Metabolisme
Mikromineral Secara Umum
(Sandstrom, 1998) :
Penyerapan fraksional rendah.
Ekskresi intestinal endogen (Zn, Cu, Mn).
Penyerapan dan/atau ekskresi dibawah
pengaturan homeostatis.
Interaksi antara mikromineral (Zn/Cu, Fe/Zn,
Fe/Mn).
Pool tubuh utamanya adalah intraselular.
Indeks status mikromineral yang tersedia
sekarang tidak sensitif dan atau tidak
spesiifik.
 METHODS OF STUDYING THE
MINERAL METABOLISM

Methods of studying mineral metabolism

such as:
• Absorption
• Retention
• Tissue metabolism and
• Excretion of mineral elements
 STUDYING ABSORPTION AND RETENTION OF
MINERALS USING BALANCE METHOD

• In balance, the intake of the element via the food is

compared to its excretion via the urine and feces.
• Element (E) retained is determined by the difference:
Efood – Efeces = absorption;
Efood – (Efeces – Eurine) = retention

• True absorption or true assimilation cannot be

determined by the balance method, since the feces
contain endogenous element.
• Determination of endogenous losses is based on the
isotope dilution method.
 DETERMINATION OF THE ABSORPTION OF MINERALS IN
VARIOUS SECTIONS OF THE
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT USING MARKERS

• The inert label (marker) method greatly simplifies determination of the

apparent absorption, by eliminating the need for a full collection of
excreta.
It is based on the use of poorly assimilatable substances ---such as
chromium oxide, polyethylene glycol, radioactive cesium and yttrium,
etc.
The magnitude of the absorption is determined from the ratio
between the element and label in the food and in the feces.
If the animals are killed at various intervals after the last feed and
their chyme is analysed, the apparent absorption of the element in
the various sections of the digestive tract can be determined.

• Calculations are carried out using the formula:

Concentration of marker in feces/chyme
% apparent absorption = 100 x 1 - ------------------------------------------
Concentration of marker in food
STUDYING MINERAL METABOLISM
USING RADIOACTIVE INDICATORS

The radioisotopes of the elements are

introduced into the animal in indicator
amounts without raising the content of the
element under study in the feed or in the
tissues above its physiological level.

The use of radioactive indicators of

elements makes it possible to follow the
distribution of the elements concerned
throughout the organs and tissues, but it is
not possible to determine their
concentration.
MINERAL ANALYSIS OF BLOOD

If blood drawn from the portal vein is

analyzed at various stages of
digestion, and the data obtained are
compared with the corresponding
parameters of peripheral blood,
information can be obtained on the
dynamics of mineral absorption in the
stomach and intestine.
 PERFUSING OF ISOLATED PARTS OF
RUMEN AND INTESTINE BY ISOTONIC
SOLUTIONS
• This method is used in studying the ion transport
mechanisms across the intestinal wall, the role played
by various segments of the intestine in absorption of
minerals, the interaction of elements during absorption
and the effect of hormones and metabolites on the
absorption processes and excretion of minerals from
the blood, etc.
• The “inverted sacs” are incubated in buffer solutions
containing various concentrations of the element under
study. This method has been effectively employed, in
particular, in clarifying the mechanism of active
transport of calcium across the intestinal wall.
 STUDY OF THE CONTENTS OF MACRO- AND
MICROELEMENTS IN THE ‘CRITICAL’ ORGANS AND
TISSUES (LIVER, BONES, SKIN, ETC.), OBTAINED BY
SLAUGHTER OR BIOPSY

• Reliable data will be obtained only if the animal

population is uniform and is numerous enough
(preferably no fewer than 5 animals per
experiment), and if the animals are properly
selected by sex and by weight. This is the
preferred method for when working with young
animals.
• The advantage of biopsy lies in the fact that
the content of microelements or enzymes
governing their metabolism can be examined in
the same animals at physiologically different
periods (growth, pregnancy and lactation,
etc.).
 DALAM VITRO DAN DALAM VIVO STUDI
PENGARUH MICROELEMENTS TAMBAH
TERHADAP AKTIVITAS ENZIM JUICE GASTRIK

Jus lambung murni ditarik dari

lambung, pankreas dan usus hewan
pada berbagai rezim diet. Aktivitas
enzim dalam jus lambung dipelajari
setelah menambahkan berbagai dosis
unsur mikro ke media yang diinkubasi.
Efek Kesehatan Mikromineral :

Umum : pertumbuhan, kematangan;

integritas sel; pertahanan kekebalan.
Spesifik : penyakit jantung koroner
(pertahanan antioksidan, metabolisme
lipoprotein, thrombogenesis, tekanan
darah); kanker (pertahanan
antioksidan, pertumbuhan dan replikasi
sel); osteoporosis (struktur tulang,
jaringan konektif).