Nama : Rinda Permai Safira

Nim : 190301211
Kelas : Manajemen 4.D/Pagi
Matkul : Ekonometrika

Tugas Review and Critical Journal

Judul An econometric analysis of international air travel demand in

Saudi Arabia.
(Analisis ekonometrik dari permintaan perjalanan udara
internasional di Arab Saudi)
Jurnal Journal of Air Transport Management
Volume dan Halaman VOL 7,143-148
Tahun 2001
Penulis Seraj Y. Abed, Abdullah O. Ba-Fail, Sajjad M. Jasimuddin
Reviewer Rindah Permai Safira
Tanggal 17 april 2021
Tujuan Penelitian Tujuan peneliti untuk mempelajari hubungan antar variabel
dengan menggunakan matriks korelasi sehingga dapat
merumuskan atau menentukan model yang dengannya
fenomena ekonomi dapat dieksplorasi secara empiris.
Metode Penelitian Jurnal ini membahas analisis dan peramalan pasar perjalanan
udara internasional di Arab Saudi menggunakan model
ekonometrik. Dalam penelitian ini dilakukan upaya untuk
mengembangkan beberapa model kebutuhan perjalanan udara
dengan kombinasi variabel penjelas yang berbeda dengan
menggunakan teknik regresi bertahap.
Model dengan dua variabel (yaitu total pengeluaran dan ukuran
populasi) merupakan model yang paling tepat untuk
merepresentasikan permintaan perjalanan udara internasional di
Arab Saudi.
Hasil Penelitian Jurnal ini memberikan penjelasan rinci tentang langkah-langkah
yang diikuti untuk pengembangan model ekonometrik
permintaan perjalanan udara internasional di Arab Saudi.
Model ekonometrika dicoba untuk menganalisis dan
meramalkan lalu lintas udara melalui pembentukan hubungan
statistik antara faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi permintaan
dan tingkat lalu lintas yang sesuai. Dari
pengukuran statistik untuk mengevaluasi model, ditemukan
 bahwa ukuran populasi dan total pengeluaran merupakan
penentu utama perjalanan udara internasional di Arab Saudi.
Model ini sangat bagus dalam hal Goodness of Fit Pengukuran
dan tidak menderita multikolinearitas. Berdasarkan analisis lalu
lintas udara melalui model yang diusulkan, the maskapai
penerbangan dan otoritas penerbangan sipil dapat
mengembangkan rencana perusahaan mereka. Meskipun tidak
ada kebijakan Saudi yang jelas mengenai perjalanan udara,studi
tersebut akan memberikan pedoman kebijakan dalam
mempelajari fasilitas bandara.
Kelebihan  Memaparkan secara jelas dan lengkap tujuan dibuat
artikel ini
 Meyertakan referensi
 Menyertakan lampiran Model Matrix Kolerasi untuk
variabel serta model mulai dari pemodelan ekonometrik
hingga teknik deret waktu, untuk merepresentasikan
pasar perjalanan udara.
Kekurangan  Dalam jurnal tersebut penulis banyak menjelaskan
tentang penelitian atau jurnal sebelumnya oleh penulis
lain dan ada beberapa kata yang cenderung
membanding-bandingkan analisi jurnal sebelumnya dan
jurnal penulis
 Journal of Air Transport Management 7 (2001) 143}148

An econometric analysis of international air travel demand in

Saudi Arabia
Seraj Y. Abed, Abdullah O. Ba-Fail, Sajjad M. Jasimuddin*
Industrial Engineering Department, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box-80204, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia

Abstract

Air tra$c analysis is an important task both for airlines and the concerned civil aviation authority. This paper addresses analyzing
and forecasting international air travel market in Saudi Arabia using econometric models. In this study an attempt is made to develop
several models for the air travel demand with di!erent combinations of explanatory variables utilizing stepwise regression technique.
The model with the two variables (i.e., total expenditures and population size) is the most appropriate model to represent the demand
for international air travel in Saudi Arabia.  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Econometric analysis; Air travel demand; Saudi Arabia

1. Introduction economic recession, or the uncertainties with regard to

Analyzing air travel market is an integral part of an
airline's corporate plan that re#ects the capacity utiliz-
ation, manpower requirements and "nancial projections
for the operating capital projects, etc. It helps make
decisions regarding the development of infrastructure
facilities, thereby ensures the improvement of services to
air passengers. Moreover, it helps to reduce the airline
company's risk by objectively evaluating the demand side
of the air transport business. Analyzing of international
air passenger movements should not be considered pure-
ly as rigid lines on charts which dictate airline's future.
Instead, it should be used dynamically to help an airline
to evaluate strategies (Boeing Commercial Airplane
Company, 1993).
Various methods are available, ranging from econo-
metric modeling to time series techniques, for represent-
ing the air travel market. Time series approaches are the
most common methods for forecasting the tra$c de-
mand. These methods are handicapped by their inability
to identify the causes of market growth and to link the
future growth with expected developments of causative
factors. They cannot, however, explain the impact of
a reduction in fares, the introduction of new aircraft, an
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sjasimuddin@hotmail.com (S.M. Jasimuddin).
future regulatory conditions. Such questions can only be
answered if the forecaster has speci"ed and calibrated
a formal model that shows the in#uence and interaction
of all the relevant variables and not just one (i.e., time).
Because of the complex nature of air transportation in-
dustry, the past records of air tra$c forecasters (using
mostly trend extrapolation) has not been impressive. In
recent years, therefore, the trend has been to develop
causal models that not only predict tra$c but also deter-
mine the impact of changes within the economic environ-
ment on tra$c. This paper aims at developing
econometric models that link future growth in interna-
tional air travel demand in Saudi Arabia with expected
developments of causative factors. However, there are
also softer methods of forecasting employing expert
panels as used by British Airways.
2. Literature review
During the last three decades, the study of air travel
demand has attracted considerable attention of re-
searchers and academics. An extensive literature has
emerged to explain the determinants of air travel de-
mand. Pioneering work in this area includes, among
others, that by Ghobrial (1992), Poore (1993), Saudi
Arabian Bechtel Company (1979), Alperovich and
Machnes (1994) and Bafail et al. (2000). Some of the
research done in this area will be reviewed in this section.

0969-6997/01/$ - see front matter  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 9 - 6 9 9 7 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 4 3 - 0
144 S.Y. Abed et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 7 (2001) 143}148
Poore (1993) has conducted a study to test the hypoth-
esis that forecasts of the future demand for air transpor-
tation o!ered by airplane manufacturers and aviation
regulators are reasonable and representative of the trends
implicit in actual experience. The test compared forecasts
issued by Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, Airbus Industry
and the International Civil Aviation Organization with
actual experience and the results of a baseline model of
the demand for revenue passenger kilometers (RPKs).
The model is the combination of two equations describ-
ing the RPKs demanded by the high- and the low-income
groups, respectively. While variations in the RPKs de-
manded by the high-income group are related to changes
in income per capita, variations in the RPKs demanded
by the low-income segment are related to changes in the
population size. The model conforms with the assump-
tions and conditions for appropriate use of regression
analysis.
Another study by Ghobrial (1992) presents an econo-
metric model that estimates the aggregate demand for
an airline. The demand is expressed in terms of airline
network structure, operating characteristics and "rm-
speci"c variables. A number of model formulations with
di!erent combinations of explanatory variables are
estimated using the two-stage-least-squares procedure.
The results suggest that the airline aggregate demand is
elastic with respect to yield, and inelastic with respect to
network size and hub dominance.
Saudi Arabian Bechtel Company (1979) conducted
a study to update the tra$c forecasts and planning as-
sumptions for the New Riyadh International Airport.
Four economic variables (e.g., gross domestic product,
government appropriations, project appropriations and
import of goods and services) that are related to air tra$c
activities were chosen for the study. Each variable was
correlated with the annual domestic and international
passenger at the old Riyadh airport. In case of domestic
passengers, the correlation coe$cient varies between
0.936 and 0.997 and the best result was obtained with
government appropriations.
For international passengers, the correlation coe$c-
ient varies between 0.97 and 0.993 and the best result
was obtained with the imports * cost, insurance and
freight (CIF).
The study of Alperovich and Machnes (1994) enabled
considerable improvement of understanding of many di-
mensions of air travel. The principal "ndings of their
analysis are that (1) air travel to all foreign destinations is
highly elastic in income and inelastic in price, and
(2) there is no di!erence in demand elasticity between
"nancial and non-"nancial assets and that both are in-
elastic.
Bafail et al. (2000) developed several models for fore-
casting the long-term demand for domestic air travel in
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. They used several ex-
planatory variables including total expenditures and
population size to formulate a model that represent
domestic air travel demand at the Kingdom.
The literature review indicates that various studies
refer to air travel forecasting. There are only few studies
on econometric modeling of air travel analysis in Saudi
Arabia. The objective of this paper is to develop an
econometric model so as to analyze international air
travel demand in Saudi Arabia.
3. Data sources
Econometric model is invaluable tool for increasing
the understanding of the way an economic system works
and for testing and evaluating alternative policies. How-
ever, such model are useless if it operates on poor quality
historical data or faulty knowledge of the causative
factors underlying tra$c growth (BCC, 1987). The avail-
ability of a consistent data set allows the use of annual
data for the period 1971}1992. The data used in the
estimation of the model originate from a variety of sour-
ces. Economic and demographic data of the Kingdom
have been taken from various issues of Achievements of
the Development Plans, published by Ministry of Plann-
ing (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) (Economic Research De-
partment in Saudi Arabian Airlines, 1990); data on GDP,
GDP growth rates, real e!ective exchange rates, imports
and interest rates are from the International Monetary
Fund's International Financial Statistics Yearbook
(1994); and data on Saudi air travel are from PCA Statist-
ical Yearbooks , published by Presidency of Civil Avi-
ation (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). When interpreting
economic data it is important to distinguish between the
e!ects of in#ation and changes in the real level of eco-
nomic activity. To convert the data collected from the
current prices to real or the constant prices, the consumer
price index at 1988 constant prices was used.
4. The determinants of international air travel demand in
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is endowed with numerous natural op-
portunities for air travel because of its geographical loca-
tion, being the site of the two holy mosques, its vast land
area spreading from the Red sea in the west to the
Arabian gulf in the east (almost 1400 km) and from
Yemen in the south to Jordan in the north (almost
1500 km), its rapid development in all spheres of life and
its friendly relations with the world community. It is
among the top 20 tourism business generating countries
and one of the most attractive countries for foreign
workers which support an argument for a strong base for
air travel (Siddiqui, 1994).
Air transportation in the Kingdom has undergone
considerable expansions and developments during
 S.Y. Abed et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 7 (2001) 143}148
Fig. 1. Annual passenger movements on international #ights in Saudi Arabia (1971}1994).
the past years. There are 25 international and domestic
airports across the country. The number of passengers
(arriving and departing) handled by all the airports
increased at an average annual rate of 15%, rising from
1.6 million in 1970 to 33 million in 1994. The high air
tra$c growth rate percentage between 1970 and 1994
re#ects growth in Saudi economy at this period. Fig. 1
shows the total number of passenger (in million) move-
ments on international #ights in Saudi Arabia between
1971 and 1994.
There are several factors a!ecting air travel demand,
each factor is composed of elements which can stimulate
or constrain air travel growth. For air travel demand
analysis purpose, these factors are more conveniently
classi"ed into two broad groups: those external to the
airline industry and those within the industry itself.
The external environment includes those factors which
are outside the control of the individual airline and
even the entire airline industry. These are basically long-
range economic, social, demographic, and political
trends, for example, the age and income distribution of its
population, its ethnic and cultural ties to other nations,
etc. (BCAC, 1993). Similarly, short-term conditions such
as in#ation, interest rate and currency exchange rates can
have a strong e!ect on the growth potential of both
individual airlines and the total industry.
Reviewing and gathering information relevant to the
characteristics of the relationship as well as the studies
already published on the subject has enabled to make
a list of the explanatory variables, which are discussed to
develop econometric model for international air travel
demand in Saudi Arabia. These variables are Oil Gross
145
Domestic Product, Private Non Oil Gross Domestic
Product, Government Non Oil Gross Domestic Product,
Total Non Oil Gross Domestic Product, Total Gross
Domestic Product, Consumer Price Index, Per Capita
Income, Import of Goods and Services, Exchange Rate
(Saudi Riyals/SDR), Exchange Rate (Saudi Riyals/US$),
Population Size, Total Expenditures, Private Consump-
tion Expenditures, Government Consumption Expendi-
tures, Total Consumption Expenditures, and Yield.
5. Discussion
An attempt is made to study the relationship between
variables by using correlation matrix so as to formulate
or specify a model with which the economic phenomena
can be explored empirically. It is observed from the
correlation matrix (Table 1) that since there is a high
correlation between private non-oil GDP, government
non-oil GDP and their total, the components of the
non-oil GDP are excluded and the total amount is taken
into consideration. The matrix also demonstrates a
low correlation between the international air travel
demand and the oil GDP. This can be explained by the
fact that the oil revenue accrues directly to the Saudi
government and the non-oil GDP is indirectly in-
#uenced by government oil revenue through mainly
government expenditure. Moreover, the oil sector's in-
come has been #uctuating sharply during the last years.
Therefore, it is logical to disregard the oil sector at the
time of developing model for the air travel demand in
Saudi Arabia.
146 S.Y. Abed et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 7 (2001) 143}148

Table 1
Correlation matrix for all candidate explanatory variables and international air travel (1971}1992)

> X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
               
> 1 0.19 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.8 0.93 0.84 0.94 0.15 !0.25 0.85 0.89 0.97 0.96 0.97 !0.40
X 1 !0.01 0.13 0.05 0.71 0.32 0.33 0.24 !0.34 !0.72 !0.14 0.48 0.18 0.07 0.12 !0.32

X 1 0.98 1 0.7 0.82 0.7 0.88 0.36 !0.02 0.96 0.76 0.96 0.99 0.98 !0.22

X 1 0.99 0.79 0.85 0.71 0.88 0.36 !0.1 0.94 0.8 0.99 0.98 0.99 !0.28

X 1 0.74 0.84 0.71 0.88 0.36 !0.05 0.96 0.78 0.97 0.99 0.99 !0.24

X 1 0.8 0.72 0.79 0.02 !0.52 0.58 0.87 0.81 0.74 0.78 !0.39

X 1 0.81 0.86 0.05 !0.48 0.71 0.91 0.86 0.83 0.85 !0.67

X 1 0.93 !0.34 !0.44 0.49 0.93 0.76 0.77 0.78 !0.31

X 1 !0.1 !0.28 0.73 0.91 0.91 0.93 0.93 !0.26

X 1 0.47 0.57 !0.16 0.25 0.26 0.25 0.04

X 1 0.13 !0.51 !0.16 !0.08 !0.11 0.7

X 1 0.57 0.89 0.92 0.91 !0.16

X 1 0.84 0.81 0.83 !0.44

X 1 0.97 0.99 !0.29

X 1 0.99 !0.21

X 1 !0.24

X 1

Where >, Demand for international air travel; X , Oil-GDP; X , Private Non-oil GDP; X , Government Non-oil GDP; X , Total Non-oil GDP;
   
X , Total GDP; X , Cost of Price Index; X , Per Capita Income; X , Import of Goods and Services; X , (Riyals/SDR); X , (Riyals/US Dollar);
     
X , Population Size; X , Total Expenditure; X , Government Consumption Expenditure; X , Private Consumption Expenditure; X , Total
    
Consumption Expenditure; X , Yield.


The correlation matrix also illustrates a high correla- Group I: (X , X , X , X ).

   
tion between private consumption expenditures, govern- Group II: (X , X , X ).
  
ment consumption expenditures and their total. It is Group III: (X , X , X ).
  
also found that there is comparatively a low correlation Group IV: (X , X , X ).
  
between the air travel demand and the yield that repres-
ents the cost of air travel. So these variables were ex- A sequence of regression equations is computed by
cluded from the model. The list of variables relevant to using di!erent combination of the group's variables
the air travel demand in the Kingdom can be narrowed through stepwise regression procedure for selecting inde-
down to seven as follows: Total Non-Oil Gross Domestic pendent variables. At each step, an independent variable
Product in billion SR (X ), Consumer Price Index in is either added or deleted until the prediction of the

Percentage (X ), Import of Goods and Services in billion dependent variable (international air travel demand)

SR (X ), Per Capita Income in thousand SR (X ), Popu- does not signi"cantly improve. These models or regres-
 
lation Size in million (X ), Total Expenditures in billion sion equations were developed using SPSS software. The

SR (X ), and Total Consumption Expenditures in billion SPSS output shows the relevant variables in every group

SR (X ). that best specify the model as follows:

While per capita income is the gross domestic Group I (X , X , X , X ): the subset of the group's
   
product divided by the population size, gross domestic variables which appear most relevant and best specify the
product and per capita income are not necessary to model is (X , X , X )
  
exist together as independent explanatory variables of Group II (X , X , X ): the subset of the group's
  
the same model. The same thing can be said about variables which appear most relevant and best specify the
population size and per capita income. Similarly, total model is (X , X , X )
  
expenditures, total consumption expenditures and gross Group III (X , X , X ): the subset of the group's
  
domestic product have strong relations among them. variables which appear most relevant and best specify the
Total consumption expenditures is the total expendi- model is (X , X )
 
tures excluding investments expenditures. Also, gross do- Group IV (X , X , X ): the subset of the group's
  
mestic product provides a detailed analysis of total variables which appear most relevant and best specify the
spending. Based on the above discussion, the model that model is (X , X )
 
represents the demand for international air travel may From the SPSS output, the least-squares lines of these
consist of a subset of one of the following groups of models for international air travel demand (here > stands
variables. for number of passengers in million) are as follows (the
 S.Y. Abed et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 7 (2001) 143}148 147

estimated t-values are in parentheses): high variance in#ation factor (VIF). This means that they
are almost linear combinations of the other independent
>"!0.9451#0.014057X #0.029507X
  variables and indicate high variance of the regression
   
coe$cients. The correlation matrix shown in Table 1 also
#0.01297X , supports this evidence. However, multicollinearity may

  arise because there is a tendency of economic variables to
Adjusted R"0.981. (1) move together overtime.
>"!1.18!0.054941X #0.044478X
 
\   
6. Results
#0.03573X ,

  By looking into the results of regression analysis, it is
Adjusted R"0.949. (2) found that the population size has a positive e!ect on
international air travel demand * holding other things
>"!2.2566#0.021314X #0.39522X ,
  the same. As the population size goes up by one percent-
   
age point, on the average demand for international air
Adjusted R"0.959. (3) travel goes up by 0.021 million passengers. Likewise, if
>"!1.1431#0.016722X #0.035623X , the total expenditure goes up by one percentage point, on
  the average demand for international air travel goes up
   
by 0.395 million passengers, other things keeping the
Adjusted R"0.979. (4)
same.
If
"0.05 or 5% level, the two-tailed critical t value is The two-tailed t-test can be used to test whether such
about 2.093 for 19 d.f. If
is "xed at 0.01 or 1% level, the a null hypothesis stands up against the (two-sided) alter-
critical t value for 19 d.f. is 2.861 (two-tailed). The output native hypothesis that true population coe$cient is dif-
indicates signi"cant linear relationship between the de- ferent from zero. The degrees of freedom are 19, which
pendent and independent variables in all the models are obtained by subtracting the number of parameters
since calculated t values exceed critical t values. Adjusted estimated, which are 3 in the present instance from
R indicate that, for all the models, most of the observa- n ("22). If
is set at 0.05, the two-tailed critical t value is
tions fall on the regression line. This means that a strong about 2.093 for 19 d.f. If
is "xed at 0.01 or 1% level, the
linear relationship exists between the dependent variable critical t value for 19 d.f. is 2.861 (two-tailed). Looking at
and independent variables. the t-values presented in Table 3, it is found that each
As shown in Table 2, F values are high for all the partial regression coe$cient is statistically signi"cantly
models and the observed signi"cance level is less than di!erent from zero at the 1% level of signi"cance.
0.00005 which also indicates that there is a signi"cant What about the overall signi"cance of the estimated
relationship between the dependent variable and the in- regression line? That is, the null hypothesis that all par-
dependent variables. The computed d values for interna- tial slopes are simultaneously equal to zero or, equiva-
tional air travel demand models are closer to 2, which lently, R"0, be accepted? This hypothesis was tested
implies that there is no autocorrelation. The tolerance of with the help of F-test. The F value has an F distribution
a variable is commonly used to measure collinearity. The
SPSS output shows high correlation exists between the Table 3
independent variables of the international air travel mod- Modeling international air travel demand in Saudi Arabia (Least-
els f (X , X , X ) and f (X , X , X ) and it is less in the squares coe$cients with standard errors and absolute t-values in paren-
     
model f (X , X ) while the model f (X , X ) does not theses)
   
su!er from multicollinearity. This is clear because most
Independent Variables International Air Travel
of the independent variables have small tolerance and Demand Model

X : population size in million 0.39522 0


Table 2 SE (0.041881)
F values and d values for international air travel demand models in t (9.437)
Saudi Arabia X : Total Expenditures in billion SR 0.021314

SE (0.001942)
Models F-value d-value t (10.975)
Constant !2.2566
f (X , X , X ) 372 2.01 Adj!R 0.959
  
f (X , X , X ) 132 1.48 F 244
  
f (X , X ) 244 2.02 DW 2.016
 
f (X , X ) 490 1.76 N 22
 
148 S.Y. Abed et al. / Journal of Air Transport Management 7 (2001) 143}148
with 2 and 19 d.f. If
is set at 0.05, the F table shows the
critical F value of 4.38. The corresponding value at

"0.01 is 8.18. The computed F of 244 far exceeds either
of this critical F value. Therefore, the null hypothesis, i.e.,
all partial slopes are simultaneously equal to zero or,
alternatively, R"0, is rejected. Population size and
total expenditures, collectively and individually, in#u-
ence international air travel demand. Since the computed
d value in the model is closer to 2, the evidence is in favor
of no autocorrelation. The previous analysis shows that
all the developed models for international air travel de-
mand are well "tting. However, these models, except
f (X , X ) model, su!er from the existence of multi-
 
collenerity.
7. Conclusion
The paper devotes a detailed description of the steps
followed for the development of the econometric models
of international air travel demand in Saudi Arabia.
Econometric models were attempted to analyze and fore-
cast the air tra$c through establishing statistical rela-
tionship between selected demand-in#uencing factors
and the corresponding level of tra$c. From the statistical
measures for evaluating the models, it is found that
population size and total expenditure are the main deter-
minants of international air travel in Saudi Arabia. This
model is very good in terms of Goodness of Fit measures
and does not su!er from multicollinearity. Based on the
air tra$c analysis through the proposed model, the
airlines and civil aviation authorities can develop their
corporate plan. Although there is no clear cut Saudi
policy regarding air travel, the study would provide
a policy guideline in studying airports facilities.
References
Alperovich, G., Machnes, Y., 1994. The role of wealth in the demand
for international air travel. Journal of Transport Economics and
Policy, Bath 28 (2), 163}173.
Bafail, A.O., Abed, S.Y., Jasimuddin, S.M., 2000. The determinants of
domestic air travel demand in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Jour-
nal of Air Transportation World Wide, Omaha 5 (2), 72}86.
Boeing Commercial Airplane Company, 1987. Air Freight, Air Travel,
and Strategic Planning. London.
Boeing Commercial Airplane Company, 1993. Proceedings of Airline
Evaluation Seminar, Airline Evaluation Seminar, London.
Economic Research Department in Saudi Arabian Airlines, 1990. Pas-
senger Pro"les Surveys. Saudi Arabian Airlines Publication,
Riyadh.
Ghobrial, A., 1992. Aggregate demand model for domestic airlines.
Journal of Advanced Transportation, Alberta 26 (2), 3}14.
International Monetary Fund, 1994. International Financial Statistics
Yearbook, Vol. xvii. Statistics Department, Wahington, DC.
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1992. Achievements of the development
plans. Ministry of Planning, Riyadh.
Poore, J.W., 1993. Forecasting the demand for air transportation servi-
ces. Journal of Transportation Engineering, Virginia 19 (5), 22}34.
Presidency of Civil Aviation at the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1970.
PCA Statistical Yearbooks. Ministry of Planning, Riyadh.
Saudi Arabian Bechtel Company, 1979. Update forecast and planning
assumptions. New Riyadh International Airport.
Siddiqui, A., 1994. Operating levels and airline economics. Saudia
World. Saudi Arabian Airlines Publication, Jeddah.