Modifikasi Perilaku (Compatibility Mode)
Modifikasi Perilaku (Compatibility Mode)
Gambaran umum
Konsep dasar
Karakteristik
Teknik
Asesmen
Penerapan
Gambaran umum
Asumsi dasar
Perilaku itu dipelajari
Perilaku maladaptif merupakan hasil belajar
yang keliru.
Perilaku maladaptif dpt diubah melalui proses
belajar.
Tujuan utamanya menghilangkah tingkah laku
yang salah suai dan menggantikannya dengan
tingkah laku baru.
Pendekatan yg berkembang pesat dan
sangat populer.
Mengapa?
Sederhana, praktis, logis, mudah dipahami
dan diterapkan, dapat didemonstrasikan,
menempatkan penghargaan khusus pada
kebutuhan anak, dan adanya penekanan
perhatian pada perilaku yang positif.
KONSEP DASAR
MODIFIKASI
Perubahan, merubah, memperbaiki, membuat sesuatu
yang sudah ada menjadi berbeda / lebih baik.
PERILAKU
Aktivitas, aksi, kinerja, respons, atau reaksi
Tindakan sederhana / simple action
Dapat diobservasi / can be overt (observable)
Dapat tersembunyi / can be covert (not directly observable)
Perilaku tersembunyi harus disimpulkan dari respon-
respon terbuka / covert behavior must be inferred from overt responses.
www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/sarafino/presentations/ch01.ppt
Merupakan semua aktivitas yang
merupakan reaksi thd lingkungan, yang
meliputi:
◦ Reaksi motorik:
Bicara, berjalan, belajar
◦ Reaksi fisiologis
Aktifitas
◦ Reaksi Kognitif
Bayangan, imaginasi, pikiran
◦ Reaksi afektif
Perasaan: benci, kecewa, rasa sayang
Apa yang bukan perilaku ?
What is Not Behavior?
www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/sarafino/presentations/ch01.ppt
Pengertian
MODIFIKASI PERILAKU
BF Skinner
Reinforcement dan punishment
Operant Conditioning
Faktor penyebab, perilaku, dan konsekuensi yang
menegaskan situasi-situasi perilaku /antecedent, behavior, and
consequence define behavioral situations
(Sugiarmin, 2006)
TEKNIK--TEKNIK MODIFIKASI PERILAKU
TEKNIK
asertivitas • Desentizization / SD
aversi • Exhaustion - kelelahan
extinction • Imcopatible method
satiation • Change of environment
modeling • Flooding
time out • Hukuman
Token economy • reinforcement
Istilah lain yg sering ditemukan :
• Shaping, chaining, promting, fading, ABA, Discrete trial
Training – DDT, thought stoping, respon cost, over
control, self control, self management, RET, dsb.
ASERTIVITAS
Suatu kemampuan untuk mengkomunikasikan
apa yang diinginkan, dirasakan, dan dipikirkan
kepada orang lain namun dengan tetap menjaga
dan menghargai hak-hak serta perasaan pihak
lain.
Dituntut jujur thd dirinya & jujur pula dlm
mengekspresikan perasaan, pendapat &
kebutuhan secara proporsional, tanpa ada
maksud untuk memanipulasi, memanfaatkan /
merugikan pihak lainnya.
Asertive training
Latihan mempertahankan diri akibat
perlakuan orang lain yang menimbulkan
kecemasan, dengan cara mempertahankan
hak dan harga dirinya.
AVERSI
Pemberian hukuman positif
Diikuti sikap tegas
Biasanya diikuti prompting
Misal : anak marah – coret-coret tembok
diminta untuk menghapus.
Disarankan sebagai opsi terakhir jika
teknik behav modification lain tdk efektif.
Aversion therapy
Digunakan untuk menghilangkan
kebiasaan buruk., dengan meningkatkan
kepekaan klien agar mengganti respond
pada stimulus yang disenanginya dengan
kebalikan stimulus tersebut, dibarengi
dengan stimulus yang merugikan dirinya.
Misal:
Homo sex – lihat photo pria telanjang –
lantai aliri listrik – gemetaran.
Jenis-jenis prosedur hukuman positif dalam
aversif :
Overcorrection
Positive Practice
Restitution – ganti rugi
Contingent Excersice
Guided Compliance – kepatuan terbimbing
Physical Restraint (Pengekangan Fisik)
EXTINCTION
Pemadaman
Adalah hilangnya respons.
Tingkah laku yang telah mengalami penguatan,
pada beberapa saat/periode waktu tidak lagi
diperkuat, dan oleh karena itu, tingkah laku
tersebut berhenti untuk muncul.
Extinction terjadi saat:
- Sebuah tingkah laku sebelumnya telah
diperkuat.
- Tidak lagi mengakibatkan penguatan
konsekuensi.
Extinction Burst
(ledakan ekstensi)
ekstensi)
Self reinforcement
Tipe--tipe Modeling
Tipe
Sensory modeling
Verbal modeling
Live vs Symbolic modeling
Efek--efek Modeling
Efek
Efek modeling: respon yang dihasilkan
benar-benar baru.
Efek hambatan dan tanpa hambatan:
peniruan mungkin dilakukan dengan rasa
nyaman atau sebaliknya.
Efek Perolehan: respon yang dihasilkan tidak
benar-benar baru
Karakteristik Modeling
Kesamaan model, kesamaan karakteristik model
dengan pengamat.
Status model, bisa berupa posisi (jabatan) dari
model atau peran model.
Standar model
Jika model yang diamati cukup terhormat, maka
pengamat tidak hanya mempertimbangkan
perilaku nyata dari model tetapi juga standar
performan yang ditunjukkan oleh model.
Faktor yang Mempengaruhi
Belajar Modeling
a. Faktor spesies
b. Kompleksitas respon
c. motivasi
Systematic Desentisization
Reinforcement positif
Reinforcement negatif
Ideosinkratik
Specific reinforcer
TERAPI TUJUAN
TINGKAH LAKU
MENDORONG MUNCULNYA
PERILAKU YANG TEPAT
MELALUI BELAJAR
TRITMEN
PENGKONDISIAN PENGKONDISIAN
MODELING
KLASIK OPERAN
PENG- BERTAHAP
FLOODING AVERSI EKSTINGSI OBSERVASI
HUKUMAN LAKUKAN
IN-VIVO IMAGINAL IDEN TARGET PRILAKU KETENTUAN BERI TOKEN ATURAN PENUKARAN
TEKNIK-TEKNIK DALAM
TEKNIK-
PENDEKATAN BEHAVIORAISME
Guthri:
Imcopatibel method, exhaustion (meletihkan,
melelahkan), dan cange of environment.
ASESMEN
Behavioral assessment & Behavioral
analysis
Behavior assessment (murni deskriptif)
Functional assessment mengenai penyebab
perilaku bermasalah tersebut : apa yang
memicu masalah dan apa konsekuensinya?
(S - R – C) --- A – B – C
Behavioral Assessment:
identifikasi perilaku yang akan diubah (target
behaviors)
Pengambilan data (anamnesis) – wawancara,
kuis
Pengukuran data dasar (baseline
measure), atau fase penilaian perilaku
(assessment) – obsrvasi, angket self report, self
monitoring of target behavior, role play.
Tiap sesi adalah suatu eksperimen, suatu studi
kasus: pengukuran data dasar - prosedur terapi
- pengukuran followup
Functional assessment
mengenai penyebab perilaku bermasalah
Functional Analysis:
mengidentifikasi penyebab perilaku
bermasalah
Social positive reinforcement (R - C)
Internal sensory positive reinforcement
External sensory positive reinforcement
Social negative reinforcement
Temukan masalah perilaku (S - R)
PENERAPAN
Prinsip dasar
• Perilaku yang akan dimodifikasi harus
diidentifikasikan dalam bentuk perilaku yg
teramati (behavior objective) dan terukur.
• Ukuran perilaku ini dijadikan indikator untuk
menentukan tolok ukur tercapai tidaknya tujuan
intervensi
• Prosedur dan teknik intervensi yang dipilih
harus diarahkan untuk mengubah lingkungan.
PENERAPAN
Prinsip dasar -lanjutan
• Metode yang digunakan harus dapat dijelaskan
secara logis dan dapat dipahami orang lain
• sedapat mungkin teknik yang digunakan dapat
diterapkan dalam lingkungan kehidupan sehari-
hari
• teknik dan prosedur yang digunakan selalu
berdasarkan kepada prinsip psikologi belajar
secara umum serta prinsip respondent
conditioning dan operant conditioning.
Prosedur pelaksanaan
SSR
TEKNIK-TEKNIK MODIFIKASI
TEKNIK-
PERILAKU
asertivitas
aversi
extinction
satiation
modeling
konsekuensi negative
time out
hukuman
dll
Learning and the Environment
Perubahan-perubahan perilaku sebagai hasil belajar /
behavior changes as a result of learning
Pengubahan situasi yang mendahului dan konsekuensi
dapat mengarahkan pada perubahan perilaku / changing
antecedents and consequences can lead to behavior
change
Pendekatan belajar dapat dibatasi oleh pengaruh-
pengaruh psikologis dan budaya / learning approach may
be limited by physiological and cultural influences
Scientific Orientation
Menggunakan teknik-teknik terapy yang secara
empirik tervalidasi / use empirically validated
therapy techniques
Hasil-hasil terapy dievaluasi secara objektif /
therapy outcomes evaluated objectively
Pragmatic and Active Methods
to Change behavior
therapy techniques selected based on
effectiveness
some methods based on operant conditioning,
respondent conditioning, and modeling research
and theory
cognitive methods are based on our
understanding of how our thoughts lead to
actions
participants take a more active role in therapy
Early Theory and Research
John Locke (tabula rasa)
Pavlov (respondent conditioning)
Thorndike
John Watson (father of behaviorism)
Watson and Rayner (Little Albert)
Mary Cover Jones (Peter)
KEMUNCULAN DAN PERTUMBUHAN MODIFIKASI PERILAKU
Emergence and Growth of behavior Modification
Countinous reinforcment
Fixed
Reinforcment
Interval
Variabel
Intermitted
reinforcment
Fixed
Ratio
Variabel
Theories of Counseling:
Behavioral Approaches
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Basic Principles
◦ The language a client uses, will speak to their philosophy and belief
system.
Beliefs
Behavioral Approaches
A-B-C-D-E-F
◦ Does not address the different ways irrational beliefs are manifested
by the culturally different.
The Basics
The Basics
The Basics
◦ The client has control over his or her life, choices and personhood.
◦ Reality therapy puts the power into the client’s hands and shows the
client how he or she can help himself or herself.
The Basics
◦ The client and counselor explores the client’s wants and needs.
◦ Trust and the relationship between client and counselor are critical.
The Basics
◦ This therapy is often used in settings other than the counseling office
(e.g. playground or detention center) and is practiced by those other
than counselors (e.g. teacher and prison guard).
◦ It helps clients exert control over their own actions, lives, choices
and feelings.
◦ Reality therapy helps clients to: Explore their wants and how that
relates to their needs; look at what they are doing to meet those
needs; evaluate behaviors in relationship to those needs and helps
the client plan to change behavior to more effectively meet needs.
◦ Reality therapy helps clients to: Explore their wants and how that
relates to their needs; look at what they are doing to meet those
needs; evaluate behaviors in relationship to those needs and helps
the client plan to change behavior to more effectively meet needs.
◦ Many of the tenets of Reality therapy fits well with other cultures.
◦ Helping the client explore wants and needs keeps the focus on the
client’s values and concerns within the client’s cultural context.
Counselors help clients understand how they construct and construe reality.
302 FBA 97
Experience tells us…
302 FBA 98
Teachers address both dimensions of their
students’ behaviors.
…behavior’s …behavior’s
form…what function…what
teachers see a motivates the
student do. student to
perform the
action.
302 FBA 99
Drawbacks to focusing on form.
Similar behaviors (reading assignments,
doing homework) are done for dissimilar
reasons (please teacher, maintain GPA,
earn a scholarship)
Dissimilar behaviors (reading assignments,
calling out in class, pinching a peer) may
be done for similar reasons (obtaining
teacher attention)
This picture indicates that aggression increases when hard tasks are introduced.
http://cecp.air.org/fba
for more info.
Chapter 6 113
Maurice’s Behavior
Chapter 6 114
TEC Special Issue on Functional Assessment and
Behavior Disorders
Chapter 6 115
Form and Function
…form is what …function is
teachers see a what motivates
student do. the student to
perform the
action.
Chapter 6 116
Drawbacks to focusing on form.
Similar behaviors (reading assignments,
doing homework) are done for dissimilar
reasons (please teacher, maintain GPA,
earn a scholarship)
Dissimilar behaviors (reading assignments,
calling out in class, pinching a peer) may
be done for similar reasons (obtaining
teacher attention)
Chapter 6 117
What is functional behavioral
assessment?
“…a set of information gathering
strategies and instruments.
Based on what precedes
behavior and what follows it,
patterns are identified that lead
to the hypothesis.” (p. 178)
Chapter 6 118
What is functional behavioral
assessment?
“…a multimethod problem-solving strategy for
gathering information about the topography of a
particular behavior (what is looks like), as well as
the ecology (environmental variables) surrounding
its occurrence.”
Chapter 6 119
Part I Hypothesizing
functional assessment
Chapter 6 120
The hypothesis generating process tries to
determine…
Are there events that consistently precede
behaviors?
What are the setting events for the
antecedents, behavior, and consequences?
Are there events that consistently follow
behaviors?
Can another behavior be taught/acquired
that will serve the same function of the
challenging behavior?
Chapter 6 121
5 functions that behaviors serve
Gaining Attention (R+)
Gaining a Tangible (R+)
Gaining sensory stimulation (R+)
Chapter 6 122
Tools used for functional assessment
Rating Scales - based on a norm group
◦ Recall the BRP
Chapter 6 123
Functional Assessment Activity
Chapter 6 124
Hypothesizing about why a behavior occurs can be based
on different methods.
•RatingScales Indirect Methods
•Behavioral Interview
(p. 181)
•Scatter Plot Grids Direct Methods
(see pp. 185-187)
•ABCs (see p. 187)
•Anecdotal Records (pp. 59-62) See comparison
to ABC on p. 61)
Chapter 6 125
Part II Functional Analysis
…is a set of procedures for
determining the function of a
behavior by systematic
manipulation of
environmental variables,
antecedents and
consequences and
documentation of their effect
on the occurrence of the
target behavior (p. 191)
…is a strategy of
manipulating the student’s
environment and observing
the effect on behavior (p.
178)
Chapter 6 126
Functional Analysis:
Analysis: Common Hypotheses
The behavior is
getting attention
The behavior results
in escaping a demand
The behavior occurs
when student is alone
(e.g., self-stimulation)
(see pages 192)
Chapter 6 127
Functional Analysis: Two ABA Designs
Chapter 6 128
ABAB (Reversal) Design
Chapter 6 129
Alternating Treatment Design
Chapter 6 130
IDEA & the Behavior Intervention Plan
“…attempts to link the management of
behaviors that impede instruction with
positive intervention strategies to reduce the
occurrence of inappropriate behavior…” (p.
51)
Chapter 6 131
When do we use BIPs?
Chapter 6 132
The Process: Step by step
Chapter 6 133
http://cecp.air.org/fba/
•ABC
•Scatterplots
•Interview
•Rating scale
Chapter 6 134
Behavior Management
Methods for Students
with Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders:
A Comparative Study
Kelly Mearns
Senior Research Project
Fall 2007
Trinity College
Research Questions
How do behavior management strategies
for Emotional/ Behavior Disorder
students used in public inclusive
classrooms compare or contrast to the
methods used within special education
classrooms in private settings?
* – Nelson, Benner, Lane & Smith, 2004. “Academic Achievement of K-12 Students with
Emotional and Behavior Disorders”, Exceptional Children, v. 71, n.1, 59-73
** - Hester, Baltodano, Gable, & Tonelson, 2003. “Early intervention with children at risk of
emotional/behavioral disorders: a critical examination of research methodology and
practices”, Education & Treatment of Children, v. 26, n. 4, 362-382.
Greenwell Medical School
Student population = 120
Informal Conversations
◦ with multiple teachers and
paraprofessionals
Formal Interviews
◦ Greenwell –1 Special Education teacher, 2
Paraprofessionals
◦ Rodriguez – 4 Regular Education Teachers, 1 Special
Education teacher
Thesis Statement
Without a school-wide commitment to behavior
management plans, classroom structure relies too
much on the individual classroom teacher’s
initiative.
Felt that she was “not prepared “Everybody who is hired here
enough” to have EBD students has experience in special ed.” –
in her classroom. She only “had
one special ed. undergraduate Ms. Stuart
course, years ago”. So she
decided to just “go with the
flow” – Mrs. Little Mandatory training on behavior
management and “Therapeutic
Crisis Intervention” – lasts 24
When asked what she wished hours in total.
she could change about the
system she claimed “ school
support” as the number one
thing she wishes she had. She Provided with manual including
asked that they spend more proper steps to take in response
time on development of those to most behaviors. Also include
skills. structures forms to record
behavior such as points sheets
“They can help you find ways to and intervention reports.
teach reading or math but not
what to do when your class is
being disrupted”
Variations in Rodriguez
Behavior Charts
Rewards
Punishment
Implications and Further
Research
Schools should provide a solid plan for
behavior management in order to ensure
standards for all their students, not just
EBD students.
By providing this plan, teachers would
feel more confidant in their classrooms
and students would receive more
consistent treatment when transitioning
into new classrooms.
Could possibly look at how many public
schools do not have a behavior
management system in place in
Hartford.
Chapter 11
Research Methods in
Behavior Modification
Accuracy of Data:
Sources of Inaccuracies
some indirect assessments measure outcomes
of behavior, not the target behavior itself
rating scale questions and labels may not be
clearly defined
self-report data is flawed when memory is
inaccurate
Accuracy of Data:
Sources of Inaccuracies (continued)
reactivity effects can modify normal responding
definition of the target behavior may be unclear
observers may not be trained or motivated to
record accurately
the detectability of the behavior may be
impaired
Accuracy of Data:
Increasing Reliability
use more than one independent observer
check the interobserver reliability of observers
train and monitor observers
Accuracy of Data:
Interobserver Reliability
several methods are used to assess
interobserver reliability
◦ the session totals method compares the
total number of observations made by two
observers
◦ the interval-recording method compares
the number of intervals in which observers
agree that behavior occurred
reliability should be above 80%
Accuracy of Data: Training and
Monitoring Observers
other procedures can enhance accuracy
let observers know their accuracy will be
checked
use interobserver reliability procedures in
training
use the procedures to evaluate the accuracy of
self-monitoring
Accuracy of Data: Training and
Monitoring Observers (continued)
use interobserver reliability procedures with
indirect assessment
interobserver reliability can be tested on
samples of the observation period
Intrasubject Research
the purpose of research will determine the
appropriate research design
intrasubject or single-subject designs are
commonly used to evaluate treatment effects
for an individual
combinations of consecutive letters of the
alphabet are used to label different designs
each letter refers to a phase of treatment with
A typically referring to baseline
AB Designs
in AB designs, baseline (A) is followed by an
intervention (B)
comparisons (typically on a graph) can be made
to see if changes occur from baseline to
treatment conditions
not an ideal method to isolate the cause of
change
Reversal, ABA or
ABAB Designs
in reversal designs, baseline (A) is followed by
treatment (B) and a return to the baseline (A)
condition
reinstatement of the baseline condition allows
for a replication of the treatment effect
replication makes it clearer that the treatment
caused the change in behavior
Reversal, ABA or
ABAB Designs (continued)
reversal may not always be an appropriate
design because:
◦ withdrawal of treatment may not lead to a
return to baseline levels of behavior
◦ withdrawal may be undesirable or unethical
Reversal Designs
Intervention Intervention
(Time-out (Time-out
Baseline + DRO) Reversal + DRO)
300
Number of vocalizations
200
Drug
100
Drug
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Daily sessions
Multiple--Baseline Designs
Multiple
multiple-baseline designs conduct more
than one AB design concurrently with
treatments beginning at different times
multiple-baseline designs are useful when
reversals cannot or should not be introduced
multiple baselines can be across behaviors,
baselining several similar behaviors within an
individual
Multiple--Baseline Designs
Multiple
(continued)
multiple baselines can be across subjects,
applying the same treatment to the same
behavior problems of two or more individuals
multiple baselines can be across situations,
baselining one type of behavior for a single
individual in more than one setting
Multiple Baselines Across Behaviors
Baseline Intervention
15
10
Eye Fixation
opriate behaviors 0
15
Mean number of inappropriate
10
Facial Posturing
15
Diaphragmatic Breathing
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Trial series
Changing--Criterion Designs
Changing
changing-criterion designs change over time
the criterion for success and look for a
relationship between criteria changes and
behavior change
one might increase or decrease:
◦ frequency requirements
◦ rate requirements
◦ duration requirements
◦ other requirements
Alternating--Treatment Designs
Alternating
alternating-treatment designs compare the
effects of two or more treatments applied at
alternating times within the same time period
does not require a reversal
several treatments can be evaluated at the same
time
a disadvantage is that the treatment effects can
interact
Alternating--Treatment Design
Alternating
20
10
Standard tutoring procedures
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Consecutive weeks
Group--Based Research
Group
group research designs compare average
responses of large numbers of individuals
subjected to different conditions
offer more generalizable results
may not accurately reflect behavior of
individuals
Group Designs:
Within--Subjects Designs
Within
within-subject designs evaluate the influence
of different conditions on the behavior of a
single group of subjects
methods follow the structure of intrasubject
designs
group average data are substituted for response
measures of individuals
Group Designs:
Between--Subjects Designs
Between
between-subject designs evaluate the
influence of different conditions (independent
variable) on the behavior (dependent variable)
of different groups of subjects
the simplest of designs compares behavior of a
control group with that of an experimental
group
Group Designs: Between-
Between-Subjects
Designs (continued)
the environment of the experimental group is
manipulated and the environment of the control
group is not
the control serves as a reference for evaluating
the influence of the manipulation
experimental designs can include more than
two groups
Group Designs: Between-
Between-Subjects
Designs (continued)
subjects are randomly assigned to groups
when therapies are evaluated, we sometimes
use waiting-list control groups
Group Designs:
Quasi--Experimental Designs
Quasi
quasi-experimental designs are similar to
experimental designs except subjects are not
randomly assigned
often used in applied settings where it may not
be possible or ethical to randomly assign groups
Dimensions of Evaluation
effectiveness of treatments must be evaluated
from several different perspectives:
did behavior change generalize to the
individual's natural environment?
was the behavior change significant to the
individual's functioning and change it enough to
have a practical impact?
do long-term savings and advantages warrant
costs of the treatment?
Importance of the Change
was change clinically significant and socially valid?
did change have a meaningful impact on the
individual's life?
did treatment move the behavior within the
normal range?
is individual and those significant in his or her life
satisfied with the change?
are treatment techniques and procedures
satisfactory to all involved?
Measuring Clinical Significance and
Social Validity
impact can be evaluated by:
◦ the individual
◦ those involved with the individual
◦ independent judges
significance of change sometimes can be
evaluated by measuring outcomes like arrests
or other external interventions
Composing a Report
after intervention is complete, a report should
describe:
target behaviors
intervention techniques
treatment outcomes
follow-up results
Tips on Doing Behavior
Modification Research
demonstrate accuracy of observations by using
more than one observer
inform observers that you are using more than
one observer
train observers
behavior should be stable before changing
conditions
use a design other than a reversal design if you
cannot expect to recover baseline
Doing Research in Behavior
Modification
Chapter 23
Introduction
Phases of Behavior Modification Program:
◦ Screening phase
Clarifying the problem and determining who should treat it
◦ Baseline phase
Determining the initial level of the behavior
◦ Treatment phase
Intervention strategy is initiated
◦ Follow-up phase
Evaluating the persistence of desirable behavioral changes after the
termination of the program
A behavior modification research project attempts to
demonstrate convincingly that it is the treatment, rather
than some uncontrolled variables, that was responsible for
the change in the behavior in question.
Reversal-Replication (ABAB)
Reversal-
Research Designs
Baseline (A) is followed by treatment (B),
return to baseline (A) condition, and then
treatment again (B)
Allows for replication of treatment effect
Replication makes it clearer that treatment
caused change in behavior
Reversal-Replication (ABAB)
Reversal-
Research Designs
Reversal-Replication (ABAB)
Reversal-
Research Designs
Reversal-Replication (ABAB)
Reversal-
Research Designs
Considerations
◦ How long should the baseline phase last?
Until see stable pattern or trend opposite that is expected from treatment
Shorter baselines in studies of behavior previously researched
Availability of time may shorten baseline time
Ethical considerations
Some behaviors are dangerous, and it may be unethical to leave them untreated for long
periods of time
◦ How many reversals and replications are necessary?
Less replications if large effects are observed and a lot of previous research
exists in the area
Limitations
◦ Withdrawal of treatment may not lead to return to baseline
◦ Withdrawal may be undesirable or unethical
Multiple Baseline Designs
Conduct more than one AB design
concurrently with treatments beginning at
different times
Useful when reversals cannot be introduced
Multiple Baseline Designs
Across behaviors
◦ Baselining several similar behaviors within an
individual
Across subjects
◦ Applying the same treatment to the same
behavior problems of two or more individuals
Across situations
◦ Baselining one type of behavior for a single
individual in more than one setting
Multiple Baseline Designs
Changing--Criterion Designs
Changing
Change over time the criterion for success
and look for relationship between criteria
changes and behavior change
Can increase or decrease:
◦ Frequency requirements
◦ Rate requirements
◦ Duration requirements
◦ Etc.
Changing--Criterion Designs
Changing
Alternating--Treatment Designs
Alternating
Compare effects of two or more treatment
conditions considerably more rapidly than in
ABAB design
◦ Applied at alternating times within the same time
period
◦ Also known as multielement design
Does not require reversal
Several treatments can be evaluated at the same
time
Disadvantage: treatment effects interaction
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Data typically analyzed without control
groups and statistical techniques used in
other areas of psychology
Behavior modifiers interested in
understanding and improving the behavior of
individuals, not groups
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Evaluate treatments on two basic criteria:
◦ Scientific
Guidelines used by a researcher to evaluate whether or not there has been a
convincing demonstration that the treatment was responsible for the changes
Judgment made by visually inspecting the graph of the results.
Guidelines for inspecting data - There is greater confidence that a treatment
effect has been observed:
the greater the number of times that results are replicated
the fewer the overlapping points between baseline and treatment phases
the sooner the effect is observed following the introduction of treatment
the larger the effect is in comparison to baseline
the more precisely the treatment procedures are specified
the more reliable the response measures
the more consistent the finding are with the existing data and accepted behavioral theory
◦ Practical
Changes to client, other significant individuals in client’s life, and society in
general
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Social Validity
◦ Behavior modifiers need to socially validate their
work on at least three levels (Wolf, 1978):
Must examine the extent to which target behaviors
indentified for treatment programs are really the most
important for client and society
Must be concerned with the acceptability to the client
of the particular procedures used
Must ensure that the consumers are satisfied with the
results
Tocen Economies
Modifikasi Perilaku
Pengertian
Token: tanda
A program in which
◦ a group of individuals can earn tokens for a variety of
desirable behaviors
◦ Dapat ditukar dengan barang atau benda
Prosedur perubahan perilaku yang dilakukan oleh
lingkungan
◦ mengatur hubungan perilaku dan konsekuensi
◦ Memberi penguat atau hadiah tidak langsung
Token Ekonomi
Advantages:
◦ Dapat langsung diberikan sesudah suatu perilaku
terjadi dan ditukarkan dengan benda bila waktu dan
tempat memungkinkan
◦ Lebih mudah diberikan pada saat individu berada
dalam kelompok
Penerapan
◦ pasien normal: menurunkan absen, anak nakal
◦ RSJ: disable person
◦ Narkoba
◦ Meningkatkan kesadaran masyarakat
Kedisiplinan orang-orang yang terlibat
Setting up a Tocen Economies
Deciding on the Target Behaviors
◦ Short-range & long-range objectives
◦ Arrange the objectives in order of Priority
◦ Select the most important
Taking Baseline
Selecting Backup Reinforcers
Selecting the Type of Tokens to Use:
◦ Attractiveness, lighweight, portable, durable, easy to handle
Identifying Available Help
Choosing the Locations & Equipment
Decide on Specific Implementation Procedures
Prepare Token Economy Manual for the Clients and the Staff
Base Line Data
Subjek Minggu Rerata
I II III IV
01 6 2 4 5 4,25
02 2 4 4 2 3,00
03 5 5 5 5 5,00
04 2 2 2 3 2,25
05 7 4 6 5 5,50
06 7 7 7 7 7,00
07 14 13 11 11 12,25
08 6 6 4 1 4,25
Selection Backup Reinforcers
Use reinforcers that are effective with the Population
of interest
Premack Principle
Collect verbal information from the clients
Catalogues
Ask clients what they like to do when they have free-
time
Natural reinforcers
Consider the ethics and legalities
Design an appropriate store to keep, display, dan
dispense the backup reinforcers
Specific Implementation
Procedures
Data sheet:
◦ what, who, how, and when
Reinforcement administration:
◦ How it will be adminstered and for what behavior
Number of tokens that can be earned
◦ Per behavior, per client, per day
◦ Store procedures and the value of tokens
Punishment?
◦ Only for clearly defined behaviors
◦ Only when ethically justified
Plan for potential problems
Penerapan Tocen Economy
Enurosis (Suci Murti Karini)
Dasar pikiran:
◦ Perilaku terbentuk karena faktor lingkungan
◦ Mengubah perilaku harus melibatkan lingkungan
Kartu diberikan bila muncul perilaku yang diharapkan
dan perilaku lain yang mendukung
◦ Diharapkan: tidak ngompol
◦ Pendukung: mau kencing sebelum tidur, bangun untuk
kencing di kamar mandi
Beberapa Catatan dalam Penerapan
Tocen Economy
Tocen Economy more effective than active
milleu treatment tapi tocen economy tidak
banyak digunakan di RSJ
Approximately 1% pasien prikiatri diberi tocen
economy therapy (Boudewyns, Fry, and
Nightingale, 1986)
Penyebab:
◦ Resistensi petugas
◦ Tidak cukup banyak petugas yang bersedia mencatat
perilaku yang diharapkan
◦ Store backup reinforcers tidak mendukung
Latihan untuk Mahasiswa
Pilih subjek:
◦ Murid sekolah dasar
◦ Mahasiswa
◦ Disabled persons
Identified five plausable goals for a tocen
economy
Define precisely the target behavior related to
each of the five goals
Describe a number of things you might do to
identify backup reinforcers for the group of
individuals you chose
Self Control
1. Learning to decrease excessive behaviors
that have immediate gratification
Smoking, eating, drinking
2. Responses that need to be increased
Studying, exercising, being assertive
WHY?
Problems on Self Control
Deitz&Malone, 1985
Fading efektif bila:
Choosing the final desired stimulus
Selecting an appropriate reinforcer
Choosing the starting stimulus and fading steps
◦ Spesifikasi sejelas-jelasnya kondisi tertentu untuk
membangunkan
◦ Spesifikasi stimulus
◦ waktu
Putting the plan into effect
◦ Usahakan eror seminimal mungkin
Deitz&Malone, 1985
Fading efektif bila:
Choosing the final desired stimulus
Selecting an appropriate reinforcer
Choosing the starting stimulus and fading steps
◦ Spesifikasi sejelas-jelasnya kondisi tertentu untuk
membangunkan
◦ Spesifikasi stimulus
◦ waktu
Putting the plan into effect
◦ Usahakan eror seminimal mungkin
Countinous reinforcment
Fixed
Reinforcment
Interval
Variabel
Intermitt
ed
reinforcm Fixed
ent
Ratio
Variabel
Fix Interval Reinforcement Schedule (FI) jadual pemberian
reinforcement yang tetap dihitung waktu. Misalnya: Dalam
penelitian Skinner, setiap 5 menit makanan akan keluar (setelah
diberi makanan, respon tikus santai. Selanjutnya lebih cepat dari 5
menit/mendekati 5 menit)
Fix Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (FR) jadual pemberian
reinforcement yang tetap dihitung menurut beberapa kali respon.
Misalnya: tiap 5 kali tikus memukul pedal, maka makanan akan
otomatis keluar, setelah makanan keluar, maka tikus akan
memukul sehingga diagram akan menanjak tajam.
Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule (VI) interval interval yang
tidak tetap. Misalnya: waktunya tidak jelas/ tidak tetap. Terkadang
makanan baru keluar setelah 5 menit, terkadang makanan bisa
keluar setelah tiga menit. Sehingga respon jadi malas-malasan.
Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (VR) tidak jelas
beberapa kali ketukan maka makanan akan keluar.
Modifikasi Perilaku
Metode dalam mengubah perilaku
Perilaku & kebiasaan yang tidak
adaptif (berlebihan/kurang) dieliminasi
Menggunakan prinsip-prinsip belajar
yang telah diuji secara eksperimental
Memberi pengukuh/reinforsment pada
perilaku & kebiasaan yang adaptif
MP
Prinsip belajar
◦ Modifikasi Perilaku
operant conditioning
classical conditioning
Modelling
Behavior Modification 257
Respondent behavior: (also called reflex behavior) is
that behavior in which responses are strengthened or
weakened primarily by stimuli that precede the
response. (Pavlov)
Operant behavior: The individual “operates” upon his
environment to produce a certain event. (Skinner)
Conditioning: When behavior is manipulated, the term
“conditioning” is used. - classical and operant
conditioning
Reinforcement:The consequence of operant
behavior is called a reinforcer.
Response , timing and contingency
SD R (O) SR
Discriminating Respons Environmental
Stimuli reaction on this
respons
Add Remove
Neila Ramdhani
Asertif
Lange & Jakubowski:
◦ Memperoleh hak-hak personal
◦ Pengekspresian pikiran, perasaan, dan keyakinan kita secara langsung
dan terus terang dengan jujur, langsung, dan tepat
Kelley:
◦ Sikap seseorang dalam mengekspresikan dirinya dengan landasan hak
pribadinya sendiri tanpa menyakiti atau menyinggung hak pribadi
orang lain
Taubman:
◦ Kemampuan untuk menyatakan perasaan, keinginan, dan kebutuhan
individu pada orang lain serta penghargaan
Kanfer & Goldstein:
◦ Orang yang asertif dapat membela diri ketika diperlakukan tidak adil
◦ Mampu memberi tanggapan terhadap masalahnya
◦ Mampu menyatakan cintanya
Orang yang Asertif
Fensterhein & Baer
Kognitif:
◦ Metode Rees & Graham
◦ Pemilihan kalimat untuk beberapa situasi:
Maaf di awal
Menyatakan perasaan dan keputusan yang sebenarnya
Menyatakan alasan yang mendasari
Memberi alternatif pemecahan masalah
Perilaku:
◦ Modelling video (Ramdhani, 1993)
◦ Role play
◦ Umpan balik
Modifikasi Perilaku
oleh:
M. Sugiarmin
asertivitas
aversi
extinction
satiation
modeling
konsekuensi negative
time out
hukuman
dll
Prosedur pelaksanaan modifikasi perilaku
asesmen
melalui pendekatan A (Antecendent)-B
(Behavior)
C (consequence)
menetapkan teknik yang dipilih
melakukan intervensi modifikasi perilaku
merekam kegiatan pelaksanaan intervensi
melaporkan hasil
Evaluasi
hal yang perlu diperhatikan
-ketelitian respon
-kecepatan respon
-kekuatan respon
-kemungkinan muncul respon lain
-usaha-usaha subjek untuk berespon
Pelaporan
-grafik
-frekuensi
-durasi
FAKULTAS PSIKOLOGI
PSIKOLOGI BELAJAR
UNIVERSITAS GUNADARMA
DEPOK
PENDAHULUAN
Secara historis studi ilmiah tentang belajar
dilakukan oleh psikolog.
Dipelopori oleh ahli-ahli seperti Ebbinghaus
(1885), Bryan dan Harter (1897, 1899) dan
Thorndike (1898).
Banyak Psikolog membuat pengakuan eksplisit
bahwa belajar merupakan hal sentral dalam
mempelajari tingkah laku (Hilgard, 1956),
didukung oleh Tollman, Guthrie dan Hull.
Pengaruh Pra Psikologi Terhadap
Studi Belajar
Filsafat:
Objek studi dari para filosof adalah peranan pikiran
individu dalam mempersepsikan dunianya.
Aristoteles : belajar itu melalui asosiasi
Tiga hukum asosiasi : contiguity, similarity dan law of
contrast.
Psikologi Belajar Sebagai Ilmu Pengetahuan :
Psikologi belajar menggunakan pendekatan ilmiah untuk
studi perilaku. Kesimpulan kesimpulan psikologis harus
berdasarkan hasil observasi yang tepat dan objektif.
Penelitian Awal tentang Studi Belajar
Herman Ebbinghaus: penelitian mengenai ingatan terhadap
nonsense sylabels.
Variabel yang mempengaruhi ingatan: waktu, tipe dan jumlah
materi, pengalaman.
“Sistem” Psikologi
Sistem Psikologi menjelaskan perilaku secara komprehensif
sedangkan Teori Psikologi menjelaskan sebagian perilaku.
Sistem-sistem Psikologi :
a. Strukturalisme d. Behaviorisme
b. Fungsionalisme e. Psikologi gestalt
c. Asosiasionisme f. Psikoanalisa
Teori--teori Belajar
Teori
Pengaruh dari sistem/ aliran psikologi mulai berkurang pada
1930 dan beralih ke teori psikologi,sebab penelitian
psikologi terfokus pada masalah proses sentral psikologi,
seperti belajar, motivasi, dll.
Teori-teori belajar komprehensif menjadi kekuatan baru yang
dominan dalam psikologi karena:
1. Psikologi mengutamakan penelitian dan percobaan-
percobaan
2. Tekanan studi psikologi menggunakan observasi perilaku
3. Tekanan kepada pentingnya proses belajar
4. Analisis S-R dalam studi perilaku
5. Penelitian mengenai belajar merupakan upaya ilmu dasar
bukan sekedar ilmu terapan
Edwin Guthrie: contiguity antara S-R ada dalam proses
belajar.Reinforcement merubah kondisi stimulus sehingga
memunculkan respon tertentu yang diharapkan dan
mencegah respon lain yang tidak diharapkan.
Metode Eksperimen
Observasi Naturalis
Studi Kausal-Komparatif
Studi Korelasi
Tes Psikologi dan Survai
Sejarah Kasus Klinikal
Subyek Penelitian Selain Manusia
Penelitian dalam Psikologi Belajar sering
menggunakan binatang sebagai subyek.
Alasannya:
Hemat
Hewan cepat bereproduksi
Kesempatan yang lebih leluasa
Waktu relatif tidak terbatas
Kode etik yang ketat terhadap manusia
Etika Penelitian
Peneliti harus melindungi hak-hak subyek
dan toidak menempatkan subyek dalam
bahaya psikis maupun fisik.
Peneliti harus menjelaskan detail prosedur
penelitian dan meminta persetujuan dari
subjek
PENGKONDISIAN KLASIKAL
Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936)
Paradigma pengkondisian klasikal:
- stimulus benar-benar netral dengan stimulus
alami yang menghasilkan respon dipasangkan
- setelah satu atau dua kali pemasangan stimulus
netral diharapkan menghasilkan respon tertentu.
Bila kondisi tersebut terjadi maka telah terjadi
pengkondisian klasikal.
Terminologi Pengkondisian Klasikal
CS CR
Pemasangan
UCS UCR
a. Respon alpha
b. Habituasi
c. Sensitisasi
d. Pengkondisian palsu
e. Hambatan laten
f. Sensory preconditioning
Pemadaman dan Pemulihan Spontan
Delay conditioning
Trace conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Backward conditioning
Temporal conditioning
Inhibition of delay
Efek dari Penguatan Sebagian
b. Identifikasi stimulus
Classical : hubungan antara CS-UCS atau CS-CR
Instrumental : hubungan antara respon dan penguatan
Shaping
Shaping: pembentukan respon
a. External shaping: pembentukan respon
dengan cara mengontrol lingkungan
dimana organisme berada
b. Internal Shaping : pembentukan respon
dimana kontrol yang konstan datangnya
dari dalam organisma dukan dari
lingkungannya
Penjadwalan Penguatan
Fixed ratio (FR)
Variable ratio (VR)
Fixed interval (FI)
Variable interval (VI)
- dalam pengkondisian instrumental ini respon
yang diberi penguatan sebagian juga lebih
tahan terhadap pemadaman dibandingkan
respon dari penguatan yang terus menerus
Pemadaman dan Pemulihan Spontan
Self reinforcement
Tipe--tipe Modeling
Tipe
Sensory modeling
Verbal modeling
Live vs Symbolic modeling
Efek--efek Modeling
Efek
Efek modeling: respon yang dihasilkan
benar-benar baru.
Efek hambatan dan tanpa hambatan:
peniruan dilakukan dengan rasa nyaman
atau tidak oleh S.
Efek Perolehan: respon yang dihasilkan
tidak benar-benar baru
Karakteristik Modeling
Kesamaan model, kesamaan karakteristik model
dengan pengamat.
Status model, bisa berupa posisi (jabatan) dari
model atau peran model.
Standar model
Jika model yang diamati cukup terhormat, maka
pengamat tidak hanya mempertimbangkan
perilaku nyata dari model tetapi juga standar
performan yang ditunjukkan oleh model.
Faktor yang Mempengaruhi
Belajar Modeling
a. Faktor spesies
b. Kompleksitas respon
c. motivasi
BELAJAR VERBAL
Serial list: 1 2 3
Karakteristik Materi
Sangat berarti: diukur dari jumlah asosiasi rata-rata
suatu perolehan unit verbal. Misal: kata “mama” sangat
berarti bagi anak dibandingkan kata “komputer”
Nilai asosiasi: presentasi responden tentang beberapa
asosiasi dari unit verbal. Memiliki kesamaan dengan
karakteristik materi sangat berarti.
Familiaritas: materi yang sudah dikebal oleh subjek.
Penilaiannya dibuat dalam skala 1 sampai 7 (tidak familiar
sampai sangat familiar).
Kemampuan pengucapan: penilaian kemudahan
pengucapan unit verbal. Penilaiannya dibuat dalam skala 1
sampai 7 (tidak mudah sampai sangat mudah diucapkan).
Karakteristik Materi
Drive-Reduction Theory
Optimum Arousal Theory
Stimulus Change Theory
Punishment (Hukuman)
Stimulus yang bilamana ditampilkan akan
melemahkan kekuatan respon atau
menurunkan frekuensi munculnya respon.
Hukuman Positif
Hukuman Negatif
Hukuman Negatif vs Pemadaman
Perbandingan prosedur Hukuman
Countinous reinforcment
Fixed
Reinforcment
Interval
Variabel
Intermitt
ed
reinforcm Fixed
ent
Ratio
Variabel
Fix Interval Reinforcement Schedule (FI) jadual pemberian
reinforcement yang tetap dihitung waktu. Misalnya: Dalam
penelitian Skinner, setiap 5 menit makanan akan keluar (setelah
diberi makanan, respon tikus santai. Selanjutnya lebih cepat dari 5
menit/mendekati 5 menit)
Fix Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (FR) jadual pemberian
reinforcement yang tetap dihitung menurut beberapa kali respon.
Misalnya: tiap 5 kali tikus memukul pedal, maka makanan akan
otomatis keluar, setelah makanan keluar, maka tikus akan
memukul sehingga diagram akan menanjak tajam.
Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule (VI) interval interval yang
tidak tetap. Misalnya: waktunya tidak jelas/ tidak tetap. Terkadang
makanan baru keluar setelah 5 menit, terkadang makanan bisa
keluar setelah tiga menit. Sehingga respon jadi malas-malasan.
Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (VR) tidak jelas
beberapa kali ketukan maka makanan akan keluar.
Modifikasi Perilaku
Metode dalam mengubah perilaku
Perilaku & kebiasaan yang tidak
adaptif (berlebihan/kurang) dieliminasi
Menggunakan prinsip-prinsip belajar
yang telah diuji secara eksperimental
Memberi pengukuh/reinforsment pada
perilaku & kebiasaan yang adaptif
MP
Prinsip belajar
◦ Modifikasi Perilaku
operant conditioning
classical conditioning
Modelling
Belajar Behaviouristik
Kelompok 1
Teori Belajar Behaviourisme
Dipelopori oleh B.F Skinner
Menekankan pada tingkah laku yang teramati
Pada prinsipnya, manusia bukanlah organisme yang
pasif tetapi ia aktif mencari akibat-akibat
(konsekuensi) yang menyenangkan, karena
memandang bahwa manusia itu pada dasarnya bebas
menetukan perilakunya, maka teori Skinner disebut
teori operant conditioning
Skinner memakai refleks sebagai unit dasar untuk
menganalisa tingkah laku organisme atau individu.
Behaviourisme
Teori belajar Behavioristik ( Watson dan E.R. Guthrie )
Mementingkan pengaruh lingkungan
Mementingkan bagian – bagian
Mementingkan peranan reaksi (respon)
Mementingkan mekanisme terbentuknya hasil belajar
Mementingkan hubungan sebab akibat pada waktu yang lalu
Mementingkan pembentukan kebiasaan
Pemecahan masalah dengan “mencoba dan gagal”
Seseorang belajar adalah dengan merespon
situasi yang baru dengan respon yang lama atau
memakai respon yang baru dipelajari
Cara efektif u/ mengubah dan mengontrol PL
adalah dengan reinforcment, penguatan
reward& punishment
Pemberian reinforcment countinous
reinforcment,dan intermitted reinforcmnet
Behaviour - Perilaku
Perilaku : merupakan semua aktivitas yang
merupakan reaksi thd lingkungan, yang
meliputi
◦ Reaksi motorik:
Bicara, berjalan, belajar
◦ Reaksi fisiologis
Aktifitas
◦ Reaksi Kognitif
Bayangan, imaginasi, pikiran
◦ Reaksi afektif
Perasaan: benci,kecewa, rasa sayang
Jenis Respon
Respondent Behavior respon yang diperoleh atau
dibangkitkan oleh karena adanya stimulus. Hal ini
merupakan pandangan dari conditioning classic, S – R yang
dikemukakan oleh Pavlov. Atau lebih tegas lagi
dikemukakan oleh Watson “ no stimulus, no respon”.
Contoh responden behavior adalah menyempitnya mata
kalau ada sinar yang tajam, saliva (keluarnya air ludah kalau
ada makanan) dan lain sebagainya.
Operant Behavior yaitu perilaku yang dikeluarkan tanpa
adanya stimulus yang jelas.
Behaviourisme
Countinous reinforcment
Fixed
Reinforcment
Interval
Variabel
Intermitt
ed
reinforcm Fixed
ent
Ratio
Variabel
Fix Interval Reinforcement Schedule (FI) jadual pemberian
reinforcement yang tetap dihitung waktu. Misalnya: Dalam
penelitian Skinner, setiap 5 menit makanan akan keluar (setelah
diberi makanan, respon tikus santai. Selanjutnya lebih cepat dari 5
menit/mendekati 5 menit)
Fix Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (FR) jadual pemberian
reinforcement yang tetap dihitung menurut beberapa kali respon.
Misalnya: tiap 5 kali tikus memukul pedal, maka makanan akan
otomatis keluar, setelah makanan keluar, maka tikus akan
memukul sehingga diagram akan menanjak tajam.
Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule (VI) interval interval yang
tidak tetap. Misalnya: waktunya tidak jelas/ tidak tetap. Terkadang
makanan baru keluar setelah 5 menit, terkadang makanan bisa
keluar setelah tiga menit. Sehingga respon jadi malas-malasan.
Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (VR) tidak jelas
beberapa kali ketukan maka makanan akan keluar.
Modifikasi Perilaku
Metode dalam mengubah perilaku
Perilaku & kebiasaan yang tidak
adaptif (berlebihan/kurang) dieliminasi
Menggunakan prinsip-prinsip belajar
yang telah diuji secara eksperimental
Memberi pengukuh/reinforsment pada
perilaku & kebiasaan yang adaptif
MP
Prinsip belajar
◦ Modifikasi Perilaku
operant conditioning
classical conditioning
Modelling
PUNISHMENT
POSITIVE PUNISHMENT – PAINFUL STIMULUS
NEGATIF PUNISHMENT – MENGHILANGKAN
PEMERKUAT TKLK (yang disenangi anak dan
tidak berkaitan langsung dengan tingkah lakunya),
misal : dlm kasus anak yg suka melawan orang tua
mengurangi uang jajan, tdk boleh nonton TV,
setiap kali anak memukuladiknya.