Atom

Sejarah Awal Kimia

• Sebelum Abad 16
• Alkimia : Upaya (ilmiah atau lainnya) untuk mengubah
logam murah menjadi emas
• abad ke-17
• Robert Boyle : "Ahli kimia" pertama yang melakukan
eksperimen kuantitatif
• abad ke 18
• George Stahl : Flogiston mengalir dari bahan yang
terbakar.
• Joseph Priestley : Menemukan gas oksigen

2
 The Divisibility of Matter
• Ultimate particle
Upon division, eventually a
particle is reached which can no
longer be divided.
Atoms are 10-11m
We detect particles at 10-15m
In theory particles 10-35m exist,
we don’t have instruments that
sensitive
“Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything
else is opinion.” - Democritus 460–370 B.C.
3
 Hukum
Ringkasan observasi yang menggabungkan semua observasi masa
lalu menjadi satu pernyataan umum.
• Hukum Kekekalan Massa— “Dalam reaksi kimia, materi
tidak diciptakan atau dimusnahkan.”
• Memungkinkan Anda memprediksi pengamatan di masa depan.
• Anda bisa menguji hukum dengan eksperimen.

Teori
• Penjelasan umum tentang ciri dan perilaku alam.
• Model alam.
• Teori Atom Dalton
• Dapat digunakan untuk memprediksi pengamatan di masa depan.
• Teori bisa diuji dengan eksperimen.
 Perbedaan Antara Hukum dan Teori

• Hukum menjawab pertanyaan " Apa" yang akan

terjadi.

• Teori menjawab pertanyaan " Mengapa" sesuatu

terjadi.

• Ini memungkinkan Anda untuk memprediksi apa

yang akan terjadi!
 Hukum-hukum dasar Kimia
Hukum Kekekalan Massa, tahun 1789
• Ditemukan oleh Antoine Lavoisier
• Massa zat sebelum dan sesudah reaksi selalu sama

Hukum Perbandingan Tetap, tahun 1794

• Suatu senyawa selalu mengandung perbandinga massa yang
sama dari unsur-unsur penyusunnya

Hukum Perbandingan Ganda, tahun 1803

Ketika dua unsur membentuk beberapa senyawa, rasio massa
unsur kedua yang bergabung dengan 1 gram unsur pertama
selalu merupakan bilangan bulat kecil
 Other Fundamental Chemical Laws

Law of Definite Proportion

 A given compound always contains exactly

the same proportion of elements by mass.
 Carbon tetrachloride is always 1 atom
carbon per 4 atoms chlorine: CCl4
 Water is always 1 atom Oxygen per 2 atoms
Hydrogen: H2O
 Other Fundamental Chemical Laws
Law of Multiple Proportions

 When two elements form a series of

compounds, the ratios of the masses of the
second element that combine with 1 gram of
the first element can always be reduced to
small whole numbers.
 The ratio of the masses of oxygen in H 2O
and H2O2 will be a small whole number
(“2”).
 Another Example:

 The ratio of the masses of oxygen in Cr2O3 and CrO3

will be a small whole number.
 Cr2O3 contains 2.167 g Cr/ g of Oxygen

 CrO3 contains 1.083 g Cr/ g of Oxygen

 The ratio is 2.167/1.083 = 2:1
the mass of nitrogen that combines with 1 g oxygen in:
Compound A 1.750 g
Compound B 0.8750 g
Compound C 0.4375 g

A/B = 1.750/0.8750 = 2/1

B/C = 0.875/0.4375 = 2/1
A/C = 1.750/0.4375 = 4/1

i.e. amount of nitrogen in A is twice that in B, etc.

 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)

 Each element is made up of tiny particles

called atoms.
 The atoms of a given element are
identical; the atoms of different elements
are different in some fundamental way or
ways.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
(continued)

 Chemical compounds are formed when

atoms combine with each other. A given
compound always has the same relative
numbers and types of atoms.
 Chemical reactions involve reorganization
of the atoms - changes in the way they are
bound together. The atoms themselves are
not changed in a chemical reaction.
 Dalton's theory lead to:

• 1g hydrogen + 8g of oxygen water

• he assumed that water formula is "OH" and the
mass of hydrogen is "1" and of oxygen is "8".
• Using the same concepts, Dalton's proposed the
first table of atomic masses. It has been proved
later that Dalton's table contain incorrect.
 Experiencing Atoms
• There are about 91 elements found in
nature.
Over 20 have been made in laboratories.
• Each kind of atom is unique
Carbon is not Hydrogen
They have different properties
Structure, magnetic meaning they can attract and
repel other atoms, melting, boiling, electrical,
stability, reactivity (attract and repel), etc…

14
 Sizes of Atoms
• Using compositions of compounds and
assumed formulas, Dalton was able to
determine the relative masses of the atoms.
Dalton based his scale on H = 1 amu.
We now base it on C-12 = 12 amu exactly.
Unit = atomic mass unit.
Amu or dalton.
• Absolute sizes of atoms:
Mass of H atom= 1.67 x 10-24g.
Volume of H atom = 2.1 x 10-25cm3.
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 The Atom Is Divisible
• Work done by J. J. Thomson and others proved
that the atom had pieces called electrons in1897
• Thomson found that electrons are much smaller
than atoms and carry a negative charge.
The mass of the electron is 1/1836th the mass of a
hydrogen atom.
The charge on the electron is the fundamental unit of
charge that we call –1 charge unit.

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 Plum Pudding Atom

• •
• •
• •
•
• • • •
• • •
• •
• •
• •
•
•

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 Rutherford’s Experiment
• How can you prove something is empty?
• Put something through it.
Use large target atoms.
Use very thin sheets of target so they do not absorb “bullet”.
Use very small particles as “bullet” with very high
energy.
But not so small that electrons will effect it.
• Bullet = alpha particles; target atoms = gold foil
 a particles have a mass of 4 amu & charge of +2 c.u.
 Gold has a mass of 197 amu and is very malleable.
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 Rutherford’s Experiment
Alpha particles
Radioactive striking screen
sample

Lead box Fluorescent

Gold screen
foil
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 Plum Pudding
Atom
• •
• If atom was like
• • •
•
•
•
a plum pudding,
• •
• • •
all the a particles
•
• •
•
• should go
• •
• straight through.
Very few of the
a particles Nuclear Atom
do not go through.
. Most a particles
. go straight through.

.
Some a particles
go through, but are deflected.
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 Rutherford’s Interpretation—
The Nuclear Model
1. The atom contains a tiny dense center called the
nucleus.
 The amount of space taken by the nucleus is only about
1/10 trillionth the volume of the atom.
2. The nucleus has essentially the entire mass of the atom.
 The electrons weigh so little they contribute practically no
mass to the atom.
3. The nucleus is positively charged.
 The amount of positive charge balances the negative charge of
the electrons.
4. The electrons are dispersed in the empty space of the
atom surrounding the nucleus.
 Like water droplets in a cloud. 21
 Some Problems
• How could beryllium have 4 protons stuck
together in the nucleus?
Shouldn’t they repel each other?
• If a beryllium atom has 4 protons, then it
should weigh 4 amu, but it actually weighs 9.01
amu! Where is the extra mass coming from?
Each proton weighs 1 amu.
Remember: The electron’s mass is only about
0.00055 amu and Be has only 4 electrons—it can’t
account for the extra 5 amu of mass.
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There Must Be Something Else There
• To answer these questions, Rutherford
proposed that there was another particle in
the nucleus—it is called a neutron.
• Neutrons have no charge and a mass of 1
amu.
The masses of the proton and neutron are both
approximately 1 amu.

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Subatomic Mass Mass Location Charge Symbol
particle g amu in atom
Proton 1.67262 1.0073 nucleus 1+ p, p + , H +
x 10 -24
Electron 0.00091 0.00055 empty space 1 e, e -
x 10 -24
Neutron 1.67493 1.0087 nucleus 0 n, n 0
x 10 -24

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 The Modern Atom
• Atoms are composed of nucleus
and electrons.
• The nucleus contains protons and
neutrons.
• The nucleus is only about 10-13 cm
in diameter.
• The electrons move outside the
nucleus with an average distance
of about 10-8 cm.
 Therefore, the radius of the atom is
about 105 times larger than the radius
of the nucleus.

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 Some Notes on Charges
• There are two kinds of
charges, called positive and
negative.
• Opposite charges attract.
 + attracted to –.
• Like charges repel.
 + repels +.
 – repels –.
• To be neutral, something
must have no charge or equal
amounts of opposite charges.
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 The Nature of Electrical Charge
• Electrical charge is a fundamental property
of protons and electrons.
• Positively and negatively charged objects
attract each other.
• Like charged objects repel each other.
+ to +, or  to .
• When a proton and electron are paired, the
result is a neutral charge.
Because they have equal amounts of charge.
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 Practice—An Atom Has 20 Protons.
Determine if Each of the Following
Statements Is True or False?
• If it is a neutral atom, it will have
True
20 electrons.
• If it also has 20 neutrons, its mass
will be approximately 40 amu. True

• If it has 18 electrons, it will have

a net 2 charge. False

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 Elements
• Each element has a unique number of protons in its
nucleus.
 All carbon atoms have 6 protons in their nuclei.
• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called
the atomic number.
 Z is the short-hand designation for the atomic number.
 Because each element’s atoms have a unique number of
protons, each element can be identified by its atomic
number.
 The elements are arranged on the Periodic Table in order of
their atomic numbers.
• Each element has a unique name and symbol.
 The symbol is either one or two letters
 One capital letter or one capital letter + one lower case letter.
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The Periodic Table of Elements
Atomic number
Element symbol

Atomic
mass

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 Isotopes
• All isotopes of an element are chemically
identical.
Undergo the exact same chemical reactions.
• All isotopes of an element have the same number
of protons.
• Isotopes of an element have different masses.
• Isotopes of an element have different numbers of
neutrons.
• Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers.
Protons + neutrons.
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• Atomic Number.
 Number of protons.
Z
• Mass Number
 = Protons + Neutrons.
 Whole number.
A
 Percent natural abundance = Relative amount found
in a sample.

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 Neon
Percent
Number of Number of A, mass natural
Symbol protons neutrons number abundance

Ne-20 or 20
10 Ne 10 10 20 90.48%

21 Ne
Ne-21 or 10 10 11 21 0.27%

Ne-22 or 22
10 Ne 10 12 22 9.25%

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 Isotopes
• Cl-35 makes up about 75% of chlorine atoms in
nature, and Cl-37 makes up the remaining 25%.
• The average atomic mass of Cl is 35.45 amu.
• Cl-35 has a mass number = 35, 17 protons and 18
neutrons (35 - 17).

Cl
35
17

Atomic symbol
A = Mass number
A
X = X-A
Z = Atomic number Z

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 Example 4.8—How Many Protons and
52
Neutrons Are in an Atom of 24 Cr ?
Given: 52 therefore A = 52, Z = 24
24 Cr
Find: # p+ and # n0
Solution Map:
symbol atomic & mass # n0
numbers
Relationships: mass number = # p+ + # n0

Solution:
Z = 24 = # p+ A = Z + # n0
52 = 24 + # n0
28 = # n0
Check: For most stable isotopes, n0 > p+.
 Practice—Complete the Following Table.

Atomic Mass Number Number Number

Number Number of of of
protons electrons neutrons
Calcium-40

Carbon-13

Aluminum-27 +3

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 Practice—Complete the Following Table,
Continued.
Atomic Mass Number Number Number
Number Number of of of
protons electrons neutrons
Calcium-40 20 40 20 20 20

Carbon-13 6 13 6 6 7

Aluminum-27 +3 13 27 13 10 14

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 Mass Number Is Not the Same
as Atomic Mass
• The atomic mass is an experimental number
determined from all naturally occurring
isotopes.
• The mass number refers to the number of
protons + neutrons in one isotope.
Natural or man-made.

38
 Example 4.9─Ga-69 with Mass 68.9256 Amu and Abundance of
60.11% and Ga-71 with Mass 70.9247 Amu and Abundance of
39.89%. Calculate the Atomic Mass of Gallium.
Given: Ga-69 = 60.11%, 68.9256 amu
Cu-71 = 39.89%, 70.9247 amu
Find: atomic mass, amu
Solution Map:
isotope masses, avg. atomic mass
isotope fractions
Relationships:
Atomic Mass   fractional abundance of isotope n  mass of isotope n

Solution: Atomic Mass  0.6011 68 .9256 amu 

 0.3989 70 .9247 amu 
Atomic Mass  63.7 2 3041  69.72 amu
Check: The average is between the two masses,
closer to the major isotope.
Practice—If Copper Is 69.17% Cu-63 with a Mass of 62.9396 Amu and
the Rest Cu-65 with a Mass of 64.9278 Amu, Find Copper’s Atomic
Mass.

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Practice—If Copper Is 69.17% Cu-63 with a Mass of 62.9396 Amu and
the Rest Cu-65 with a Mass of 64.9278 Amu, Find Copper’s Atomic
Mass, Continued.
Given: Cu-63 = 69.17%, 62.9396 amu
Cu-65 = 100-69.17%, 64.9278 amu
Find: atomic mass, amu
Solution Map:
isotope masses, avg. atomic mass
isotope fractions
Relationships:
Atomic Mass   fractional abundance of isotope n  mass of isotope n

Solution:
Atomic Mass  0.6917 62 .9396 amu 
 0.3083 64 .9278 amu 
Atomic Mass  63.5525  63.55 amu
Check: The average is between the two masses,
closer to the major isotope.