UJIAN AKHIR SEMESTER

Diajukan untuk memenuhi salah satu syarat Ujian Akhir Semester Mata Kuliah
Dimensi Fisiologis Dalam Olahraga

Disusun oleh :
Lenggani
2307712

PENDIDIKAN OLAHRAGA
SEKOLAH PASCASARJANA
UNIVERSITAS PENDIDIKAN
INDONESIA 2023
1. IDENTITAS JURNAL

Judul Teknologi Informasi Dan Komunikasi Sebagai

Pendukung Penerapan Pedagogi Nonlinier
Dalam Pendidikan Jasmani: Pengaruhnya
Terhadap Eksplorasi Dan Motivasi Siswa

Jurnal Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

(Q3)
Halaman 44–49
Tahun 2022
Penulis John Komary , Jia Yi Chow, Masato Kawabata
dan Corliss Zhi Yi Choo
Tanggal 8 Februari

2. ISI JURNAL

Pendahuluan Di abad ke dua puluh satu , lanskap

Pendidikan Jasmani (Penjas) terus berubah,
dengan para siswa yang semakin terbenam
dalam lingkungan pembelajaran yang
digerakkan oleh teknologi. Oleh karena itu,
ada kebutuhan untuk memahami bagaimana
Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK)
berdampak pada kesempatan belajar. Secara
khusus, bagaimana praktik pedagogis dapat
mengambil manfaat dari perkembangan TIK.
Tujuan Penelitian Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk
menyelidiki pengaruh penggunaan TIK
dalam pendidikan jasmani ketika disertai
dengan inovasi pedagogis untuk
meningkatkan motivasi siswa
Grand Theory Self-determination theory (SDT)
Metode Penelitian Sebanyak 30 peserta dari 5 kelas olahraga
yang berbeda di sebuah sekolah
internasional dengan pembagian jenis
kelamin yang kurang lebih
sama (16 perempuan; 14 laki- laki)
diikutsertakan dalam penelitian ini. Enam
peserta diikutsertakan per kelas, yang
merupakan jumlah maksimum peserta yang
yang bisa berlatih di dinding elektronik
selama pelajaran. Untuk memilih 6 peserta
tersebut, peserta di setiap kelas, semua
sukarelawan terlebih dahulu didaftar dan
pengacakan berdasarkan jenis kelamin
dilakukan dari daftar tersebut untuk memilih
6 peserta yang diusulkan untuk mengambil
bagian dalam penelitian ini.
Hasil Penelitian Studi ini berfungsi sebagai contoh praktis
tentang bagaimana teknologi dapat
digunakan untuk mendorong inovasi
pedagogis yang pada akhirnya
menghasilkan efek pembelajaran yang
signifikan bagi peserta didik. Variasi dan
ruang untuk bereksplorasi selama pelajaran
NLP difasilitasi melalui penggunaan
teknologi dalam bentuk dinding panjat
berinsrumen. Dalam hal ini, teknologi
adalah pendukung untuk inovasi pedagogis,
bukan hanya inovasi itu sendiri. Hal ini
menyoroti manfaat potensial dan cara-cara
yang TIK dapat digunakan untuk
meningkatkan tingkat kenikmatan siswa,
terutama ketika didukung oleh prinsip-
prinsip pedagogi yang baik. Meskipun akut
dari kondisi NLP diperiksa
dalam penelitian ini, durasi yang relatif
 singkat durasi latihan di setiap kondisi
merupakan keterbatasan dari eksperimen
ini. Memang, jika menerima umpan balik,
merasakan dirinya meningkat dalam tugas,
atau hanya mengeksplorasi lebih banyak
selama latihan benar-benar berdampak pada
motivasi siswa, faktor-faktor tersebut akan
mendapat manfaat dari durasi latihan yang
lebih lama agar lebih terlihat, oleh karena
itu lebih berdampak pada motivasi siswa.
Keterbatasan lainnya adalah penggunaan
kuesioner untuk untuk menilai profil
motivasi siswa. Indikator seperti kesediaan
mereka untuk terus memanjat setelah siklus
PE berakhir atau untuk berpartisipasi dalam
memanjat sebagai kegiatan ko-kurikuler
mereka dapat menjadi ukuran obyektif
obyektif dari motivasi intrinsik.

3. ANALISIS SWOT PADA JURNAL

Strength (Kekuatan)  Judul jurnal menarik dan juga

relevan dengan isi jurnal yang
membahas mengenai pengaruh
penggunaan TIK dalam pendidikan
jasmani ketika disertai dengan
inovasi pedagogis untuk
meningkatkan motivasi siswa.
 Pada abstrak, penulis menggunakan
kata kunci dengan tepat. Kata kunci
yang digunakan mampu mewakilkan
objek dan tujuan penelitian tersebut
dilakukan. Kata kunci yang
 digunakan penulis yaitu Pendidikan
Jasmani, Teknologi Informasi dan
Komunikasi, Pendagogi Nonlinier,
Inovasi Pendagogis dan Teknologi.
 Pada bagian pendahuluan, penulis
memaparkan gagasannya melalui
teori-teori dari sumber-sumber yang
relevan. Teori - teori yang
disampaikan penulis secara garis
besar adalah teori Self-determination
theory (SDT).
 Penulis menggunakan sumber dan
referensi yang banyak dari beragam
literatur pada daftar kepustakaannya.
Pada kepustakanya, terlihat penulis
menggunakan referensi beberapa
sumber yang aktual Sehingga jurnal
ini bisa dikatakan relevan dari segi
sumber materi. Selain itu, penulis
juga menggunakan penulisan sitasi
dalam Harvard Style pada daftar
pustakanya dan disusun berurutan
secara alphabetized.
 Jurnal mudah di pahami dan juga isi
jurnal cukup lengkap.
Weakness (Kelemahan)  Didalam jurnal tidak mencantumkan
menggunakan metode penelitian
yang jelas seperti kualitatif,
kuantitatif, maupun studi
kepustakaan.
 Dalam jurnal juga tidak
mencantumkan teknik pengambilan
data yang jelas, penulis langsung
 memaparkan secara garis besar
mengenai pengambilan data tanpa
menyebutkan teknik apa yang di
gunakan.
 Dalam penelitian ini juga tidak
menuliskan saran, sedangkan jika
dilihat dari laman
pskp.kemdikbud.go.id bahwa saran
merupakan bagian penting dalam
sebuah artikel jurnal.
Opportunity (Peluang)  Dapat memberi masukan,
memperkaya, dan juga melengkapi
kajian keilmuan bagi pengembang
ilmu edukasi, terkhususnya
pengembang edukasi di bidang
olahraga.
 Dapat digunakan sebagai referensi
kepada peneliti selanjutnya yang
akan melakukan penelitian dengan
ruang lingkup yang sama terkait
Pedagogi.
 Dapat memperkaya hasil-hasil
penelitian Khususnya dalam bidang
kajian edukasi bidang olahraga.

Threat (Ancaman)  Adanya peneliti yang akan datang

melakukan plagiarisme terhadap
penelitian terdahulu yang telah
dilakukan sebelumnya.
 Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2 (2022) 44–49

Contents lists available at

Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

journal homepage:

Information and Communication Technology as an enabler for

implementing Nonlinear Pedagogy in Physical Education: Effects on
students’ exploration and motivation
John Komar∗, Jia Yi Chow, Masato Kawabata, Corliss Zhi Yi Choo
Physical Education and Sports Science, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616

a R T i c L e i n f o a b s T R a c T

Keywords: In the twenty-first century the Physical Education (PE) landscape is ever changing, with students being im-
Physical Education
mersed increasingly in technologically driven learning environments. Therefore, there is a need to understand
Information and communications technology
how Information and Communication Technology (ICT) are impacting learning opportunities. Specifically, how
Nonlinear Pedagogy
Pedagogical innovation
pedagogical practices could benefit from the development of ICT. This study investigated the effect of using ICT in
Technology PE when it is accompanied by a pedagogical innovation to promote students’ motivation. Thirty participants from 5
different indoor climbing PE classes were involved. Three experimental conditions were used: (1) Control, a regular
climbing lesson, where traditional climbing holds are used, (2) Placebo climbing lesson, where partici- pants climbed
on an instrumented climbing wall with electronic climbing holds but the content of the lesson was similar to the
regular condition, and (3) Nonlinear Pedagogy climbing lesson, where participants also climbed on the
instrumented wall but with technology used in this context to implement innovative tasks routed on Non- linear
Pedagogy concepts (i.e., fostering motor exploration). Participants were involved in all three conditions and at
the end of each condition, and they completed a survey set on their experiences in the climbing lessons. Compared
to the control and placebo conditions, external regulation and tension scores were significantly lower and enjoyment
scores were significantly higher during the Nonlinear Pedagogy climbing lesson. These results indicated that when
integrated with a clear pedagogical purpose, ICT could positively impact learners.

1. Introduction
tegrate ICT in PE lesson to optimize potential motivational and be-
havioural benefits.
Information and communication technology (ICT) has rapidly
Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a suitable framework to
trans- formed the world we live in. This is especially so for the current
understand motivation. Within SDT, it postulates that the three basic
gener- ation of learners who are increasingly exposed to ICT in their
psychological needs of perceived competence, autonomy, and related-
everyday lives (Casey, Goodyear, & Armour, 2017; Koh, Tan, Camiré,
ness are central concepts to understand behaviour initiation and regu-
Paculdar, & Chua, 2021; Selwyn & Stirling, 2016). ICT refers to
lation (Guay et al., 2000). By satisfying these three needs, individuals
various commu- nication technologies such as mobile applications,
move towards a more self-determined and intrinsically motivated be-
computers, software and other media applications that provides
haviour (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT proposes that
information to users in a digital form (Koh et al., 2021; Sargent &
pedagogical climates which promote intrinsic motivation would result
Casey, 2020). The growth and advancement in ICT has led to the
in higher levels of engagement, increased concentration, and effort as
integration and greater empha- sis of ICT within education
well as greater continued participation in PE (Guay, Vallerand, &
environment as well (Cox & Abbott, 2004; Falloon, 2020; Joo & Choi,
Blan- chard, 2000; Moy et al., 2015; Rudd et al., 2020; Ryan & Deci,
2021; Roure et al., 2019). The introduction of ICT in PE has shown to
2000; Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2003). Thus, it is crucial to provide
enhance students’ learning through increased student motivation and
learn- ers with a motivationally supportive environment to enhance
engagement when ICT supported lessons are carefully designed and
learning, specifically in a PE context.
delivered (Bodsworth & Goodyear, 2017; Casey & Jones, 2011;
Nonlinear Pedagogy (NLP) is a pedagogical approach that views
Goodyear, Casey, & Kirk, 2014; Pyle & Esslinger, 2014). However, a
learners as nonlinear dynamical movement systems, which encourages
challenge for practitioners would be finding ways to in-
individualized learning and supports the exploratory nature of learn-
ing (Chow, Davids, Hristovski, Araújo, & Passos, 2011). It includes five

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: john.komar@nie.edu.sg (J. Komar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajsep.2022.02.001
Received 22 November 2021; Received in revised form 8 February 2022; Accepted 9 February 2022
2667-2391/Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
J. Komar, J.Y. Chow, M. Kawabata et al.
main design principles such as the use of representative learning de-
signs, constraints manipulation, awareness of focus of attention
instruc- tions, conservation of information-movement coupling through
the use of task simplification and functional variability (Button,
Seifert, Chow, Araújo, & Davids, 2020; Chow, Renshaw, Button, Davids,
& Tan, 2013). It has been purported that the NLP principles have the
ability to cre- ate learning environments that meet the development of
the three ba- sic psychological needs (perceived competence,
autonomy and relat- edness) of learners, thus resulting in the
development of intrinsically motivated individuals who are more
inclined to actively engage dur- ing activity (Lee, Chow, Button, & Tan,
2017; Moy, Renshaw, & Davids, 2015; Renshaw, Oldham, & Bawden,
2012). Individuals who are more intrinsically motivated are more
actively engaged during practice, have effective learning strategies and
hence have better learning outcomes (Araújo, Davids, & Renshaw,
2020; Moy et al., 2015; Renshaw, Oldham, & Bawden, 2012; Rudd et
al., 2020). Within NLP, individuals are given the freedom to interact
with the learning environment to formulate their own functional
movement solutions that best match their unique in- dividual
characteristics and action capabilities to meet task demands (Moy et
al., 2015; Rudd et al., 2020). Functional movement variability is
embraced, and individuals are provided opportunities during practice,
through constraints manipulation, to explore a variety of movement
pos- sibilities to meet the ever-changing situational demands (Chow et
al., 2013; Rudd et al., 2021). Such pedagogical approaches like NLP
are gaining more interest in applied settings and are increasingly
adopted in various PE context such that it encourages the rethinking of
teaching, learning and teacher’s professional development (e.g., Chow,
Komar, Davids, & Tan, 2021)
The challenge in PE would then be how to facilitate such variabil-
ity and exploration, and could ICT be used in meaningful ways to
inno- vate learning designs that helps teachers facilitate and enhance
students’ learning (Casey & Jones, 2011; Casey et al., 2017).
Specifically, ICT could form an interesting vehicle to implement
variability in practice (i.e., one key pillar of NLP) as technology makes
it easier to modify and variate the environment of practice. In addition,
real time data process- ing allowed by the use of technology can help
to provide live feedback to the learner about his/her own exploratory
activity or directing at- tentional focus more externally (i.e.,
highlighting the effect of learner’s activity on its environment).
Physical activities where multiple solu- tions are available to the
learner to perform (e.g., team games, climb- ing, swimming), based on
learner’s profile and abilities, could therefore greatly benefit from a
suitable use of ICT in pedagogical practices.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of using ICT on
student activity and engagement in PE, with specific focus on examining
how ICT supports pedagogical innovation. Specifically, we sought to
reinforce the impact of using innovative technology in the teaching of
PE when it is accompanied by a pedagogical driven approach with
reference to students’ engagement and promoting students’ optimal
exploration level.
2. Methodology
2.1. Participants
A total of 30 participants from 5 different PE classes in an interna-
tional school with an approximately equal gender breakdown (16 fe-
males; 14 males) were included in the study. Six participants were in-
cluded per class, which was the maximum number of participants who
could practice on the electronic wall during a lesson. To select those 6
participants in each class, all volunteers were first listed and a cluster
randomisation by gender was performed from that list to pick the 6
par- ticipants whom were proposed to take part of the study.
Participants had
a mean age of 14.4 ± 3 years and mean height of 167.6 ± 7.1 cm. A prior
analysis using G∗Power provided a target sample size of 30 partic- ipants
with a small to medium effect size (𝜂p 2 = 0.05), a power of 0.8, alpha
value of 0.05 and 3 measurements. All participants were consid-
Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2 (2022) 44–49
ered novices with only 1 prior cycle of climbing in PE (i.e., 10
lessons). Human ethics approval was obtained from the University
Institutional Review Board (XXX-XXX-XXX) and written consent
from participants and from their parents/legal guardian was obtained
prior to the start of any data collection.
2.2. Data collection/procedure
Beta in the climbing community refers to the information about a
climb and the solution that the climber formulates to complete a climb-
ing route (Phillips, Becker, & Bradley, 2012). There are many betas to
which climbers can use for a single route, based on their climbing pro-
files and abilities (Seifert, Cordier, Orth, Courtine, & Croft, 2017). There-
fore, although climbing may not be a typical activity in mainstream
schools, a climbing task was chosen as a relevant vehicle to answer the
study objectives as it is a good platform to implement the NLP ap-
proach, since NLP encourages an exploratory approach towards motor
skill learning with an emphasis on individualised movement
behaviours (Chow et al., 2011).
Three experimental conditions were designed to attempt to answer
our research question: (1) Control (2) Placebo and (3) NLP. The con-
trol condition consisted of a regular climbing lesson. Participants simply
climb on a traditional climbing wall and performed regular tasks. The
Placebo condition consisted of a placebo innovative lesson, where par-
ticipants climbed on an instrumented climbing wall (ClimbLing.com)
equipped with translucent electronic holds which can be lit on or off
as requested. Participants would climb on holds which are all lighted
up prior to the start of the climb and there is no change to the route
during the climb. In other words, the tasks and the route designed for
this placebo condition were exactly similar as the control condition with the
exception that the routes were designed on the electronic wall. Par- ticipants
were instructed to only use the climbing holds that were lit. This
placebo condition was meant to control the effect of using a sim- ple
technology without any feedback on the practice, to delineate the effect of
technology and the effect of pedagogical innovation supported by
technology.
The NLP condition required participants to climb on the instru-
mented climbing wall used during the placebo climbing lesson. How-
ever, in this condition, there were two specific activities presented to
the students. Those activities were based on NLP principles and
focused on fostering exploratory and search behaviours during practice
instead of providing information about an ideal way to climb. The first
task consisted of constraining the available information on the route for
the learner, as only the next 3 holds were visible to the climber during
the ascent for every trial. Indeed, the instrumented wall was able to
detect when the climber touched a hold, therefore making visible (i.e.,
to lit on) the next hold only as the climber is climbing. Therefore, only
the next 3 holds were constantly visible at any one time. The second
activity consisted of a condition where more holds than necessary were
lighted up and participants were told to use the minimum number of
holds nec- essary to reach the top. The objective for the climber was to
reach the top by using the minimum number of holds. Eventually, the
purpose of those NLP climbing lessons was to allow room for more
exploration by pushing participants to explore different solutions.
Specificities of the learning protocol are summarized in Table 1.
The order of the conditions was randomized using cluster random-
ization per class (i.e., the order was similar for the 6 students in the
same class), namely the order of the conditions was randomized be-
tween the classes but identical within each class. Cluster
randomization was deemed better to keep the same order within each
class to avoid creating visible differences between the students (e.g.,
some students who could see the others practicing on the electronic wall
but who were not allowed to use it because in the control condition).
After an initial familiarization session during the first lesson of the
climbing cycle, each participant then practiced 3 lessons in each condi-
tion, making up a total of 10 lessons. During each lesson, the students
45
J. Komar, J.Y. Chow, M. Kawabata et al.
Table 1
Specificities of the three practice conditions.
Control climbing lesson Placebo climbing lesson
3 ascents on a traditional climbing wall. 3 ascents on an instrumented climbing wall. All holds to be
used will be lighted up.
1 ascent on an instrumented climbing wall. Only next 3
climbing holds will be lighted up.
climbed 3 ascents; 3 ascents being their average number of ascent in a
regular PE lesson (according to their PE teacher). The data were then
collected on their third lesson for each condition, i.e. with a 3 weeks
in- terval. The objective of practicing in the specific condition for 2
weeks before the actual data collection was to limit any hysteresis
effect and to ensure that the data collection really focused on the
specific practice condition.
2.3. Measures
Firstly, a check of the effect on the NLP implementation was per-
formed by comparing the exploration level exhibited by the climbers
on the instrumented climbing wall. As the instrumented wall was able
to measure the number of touches on the climbing holds (i.e., climb-
ing wall grips), the average number of touches per climbing hold was
collected after each ascent for both the placebo condition and the NLP
condition. It was expected that the NLP condition would show a higher
average number of touches per hold than a placebo condition, advocat-
ing for a higher level of exploration exhibited by the climbers in the NLP
condition. This measure was not performed for the control condition as
the regular wall does not allow an automatic measurement of this
infor- mation. However, as the practice in the Control condition was
similar to the one in the Placebo condition, it can be assumed that
exploration in the Control and Placebo conditions are similar.
Secondly, to measure motivation and experience in three different
climbing conditions, all participants completed the Intrinsic Motiva-
tion Inventory (IMI) (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and the Situational Moti-
vational Scale (SIMS) (Guay et al., 2000) at the end of each of the
three third lessons. A total of eight constructs were measured across
the two questionnaires, four from the IMI and four from the SIMS. The
IMI contained 18 items that measure participant’s subjective
experience in the target activity (i.e., climbing) and consists of four
subscales: In- terest/Enjoyment (5 questions), Perceived Competence
(5 questions), Effort/Importance (4 questions), and Pressure/Tension (4
questions) (Moy et al., 2015). The SIMS is composed of 16 questions,
which as- sessed different type of motivation for engaging in the
activity (Intrinsic Motivation (4 questions), Identified Regulation (4
questions), External Regulation (4 questions) and Amotivation (4
questions)). For both ques- tionnaires, participants were asked to
answer on a Likert-tyle scale from 1 (corresponds not at all) to 7
(corresponds exactly).
2.4. Statistical analysis
The level of exploration between the NLP and the Placebo condi-
tion was analysed using a t-test for repeated measures, after checking
for normality of the distribution of differences. Cronbach’s alpha coef-
ficient (𝛼) was calculated for each subscale to examine the internal re-
liability of subscale responses. Thereafter for every psychological con-
struct, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted (3 levels
[Control; Placebo; NLP]), after checking for normality of distribution
of the variables. When deviations from sphericity occurred, p values
were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser epsilon (𝜀) correction when mean
epsilon was lower than 0.75. When mean epsilon was above this value the
Hyun-Feld correction was used. Simple effects analysis and post Hoc tests
using the Bonferroni correction were applied to deter- mine the location
of differences between the conditions. Statistical dif-
Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2 (2022) 44–49
NLP climbing lesson
2 ascent on an instrumented climbing wall. More holds
than necessary are lighted up. Participants were instructed
to use the minimum number of holds to reach the top.
ference was accepted at p < .05 for the main effects and effect size
was calculated using partial eta squared (𝜂p2). Following conventions
from Cohen (1988) magnitude of effects were interpreted as follows:
𝜂p2 = 0.02 considered as small, 𝜂p2 = 0.13 considered as medium and
𝜂p2 = 0.26 considered as large effect. When paired-sample t-test was
used, Cohen’s d was used as a measure of effect size, interpreted as fol-
lows: d = 0.2 considered as small, d = 0.5 considered as medium and d
= 0.8 considered as large effect.
3. Results
3.1. Check of NLP condition for fostering exploration
Paired sample t-test between NLP condition and Placebo condition
performed on the average number of touches per hold showed that the
number of touches in the NLP condition (3.92 ± 1.36 touches per hold)
was significantly higher compared to the Placebo condition (2.76 ±
0.96 touches per hold), t(29) = −3.649, p < .001, d = 0.666. Those
results confirm that the specific tasks and activities in the NLP
condition effec- tively impacted the exploration exhibited by the
participants.
3.2. Questionnaire internal reliability and construct validity
Cronbach’s 𝛼 ranged from 0.75 to 0.90 for the IMI and SIMS sub-
scale scores (see Table 2) and found that they were internally consistent
based on Nunnally and Bernstein’s (1994) cut-off criterion of 0.70 for the
psychological domain.
3.2. Mean differences in psychological constructs
With reference to the SIMS responses, no significant differences were
observed for the subscales of Intrinsic Motivation, Identified
Regulation and Amotivation. However, a significant difference was
found for Ex- ternal Regulation, F(2,58) = 6.921, p = .002, 𝜂p2 =
0.193. Post-hoc test revealed that participants were significantly less
externally regulated during the NLP climbing condition (3.22 ± 1.55)
and during the Placebo climbing condition (3.41 ± 1.50) as compared
to the regular climbing session (4.08 ± 1.50), both pBonf < 0.024 (see
Table 3).
In regard to the IMI responses, no significant difference was found
for the subscales of Perceived Competence and Effort/Importance.
How- ever, the Pressure/Tension level was significantly different
across the conditions, F(2,58) = 8.046, p < .001, 𝜂p2 = 0.217.
Participants were significantly less Pressured/Tense during the NLP
climbing condition (3.03 ± 1.24) as compared to the Control climbing
lesson (3.80 ± 1.51), pBonf = 0.033 as well as compared to the Placebo
condition lesson (4.18
± 0.70), pBonf < 0.001. Interest/Enjoyment levels were also sig-
nificantly different between the conditions, F(1.65,47.84) = 24.66, p <
.001, 𝜂p2 = 0.46, 𝜀 = 0.825. Interest/Enjoyment level during NLP
climb- ing lesson (5.50 ± 0.75) was significantly higher as compared
to Control condition lesson (4.27 ± 1.05), pBonf < 0.001 as well as
compared to the Placebo condition lesson (4.08 ± 1.13), pBonf < 0.001.
4. Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of using ICT in
teaching PE when it is accompanied by a pedagogical innovation. Re-
sults showed that implementing NLP indeed was a way to foster the
46
J. Komar, J.Y. Chow, M. Kawabata et al. Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2 (2022) 44–49

Table 2
Internal reliability analysis (Cronbach’s 𝛼) for each of the constructs (minimal observed value between
the 3 conditions).

Measure Subscale Minimal Cronbach’s 𝛼 between the 3 conditions

Situational Motivational Scale Intrinsic motivation 0.904

Identified Regulation 0.758
External Regulation 0.872
Amotivation 0.839
Intrinsic Motivation Inventory Perceived Competence 0.810
Pressure/Tension 0.858
Interest/Enjoyment 0.754
Effort/Importance 0.810

Table 3
Mean score and standard deviation (SD) for each of the eight constructs, for each condition.

Questionnaire Psychological construct Control Condition NLP Condition Placebo Condition

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

SIMS Intrinsic motivation 5.72 1.24 5.23 0.69 5.70 0.85

Identified Regulation 5.10 1.02 5.09 0.78 5.20 0.82
External Regulation 4.08 1.49 3.22∗ 1.55 3.41∗ 1.49
Amotivation 1.79 0.97 1.99 0.86 2.08 0.95
IMI Perceived Competence 5.05 1.05 5.04 0.87 5.30 0.65
Pressure/Tension 3.80 1.50 3.03∗∗ 1.23 4.18 0.69
Interest/Enjoyment 4.26 1.05 5.50∗∗ 0.74 4.08 1.13
Effort/Importance 5.37 1.09 5.31 0.78 5.20 0.81

Note. ∗ Indicates a significant difference with control condition at p < .05; ∗∗

Indicates a significant difference with Control
condition and Placebo condition at p < .05.

exploratory activity of the participants during practice. In addition dur-

tion (Moy et al., 2015). This result may be explained by the local con-
ing the NLP climbing lesson, participants engaged in the lesson with
text, where the data collection was performed in an international school
feeling of less obligations to obtain external rewards or avoid punish-
where the students were already originally highly intrinsically moti-
ments, less tense and had higher enjoyment scores. In addition, it was
vated, giving very little room for improvement (i.e., Intrinsic
found that merely using some technology (i.e., simply using
Motivation level was 5.72 ± 1.24 for the control group, Table 3).
technology to highlight a path similarly to that of a regular route
However, the fact that NLP is less focused towards a specific, ideal
without any ped- agogical change) had some effects on its own to
movement form could explain the lower tension and higher enjoyment
regulate participants engagement in the activity less externally, as seen
observed in this study. Individuals who are intrinsically motivated, find
by the significantly lower subscale of external regulation during the
it more enjoyable in the participation and hence are inclined to put
placebo climbing les- son, compared to the control condition. Previous
more effort which ulti- mately leads to enhanced sports performance
studies explained that the implementation of new technologies in
(Araújo, Davids, & Ren- shaw, 2020; Lee et al., 2017; Moy et al.,
general during lessons could impact students’ motivation as they
2015). This is an encouraging result as individuals who enjoy the
viewed the experience as something that was different and innovative
and that appealed to some students (Eberline & Richards, 2013; activity are more likely to continue their engagement in activity (Deci
Gallagher, 2020; Kretschmann, 2015). & Ryan, 2000; Moy et al., 2015).
The main benefit of the instrumented climbing wall is the possibil-
Although simply using technology produced some positive effects,
ity to modify the routes between every trial as well as during the climb
the interaction between technology and innovative pedagogy during
itself. Indeed, the main issue in climbing when inducing variability in
the NLP climbing lesson showed greater benefits. Notably, the
practice is the difficulty in modifying the routes, which is highly time
interaction comes from how implementation of NLP principles was
consuming. The present ICT system allowed practitioners to overcome
possible due to the use of the technology incorporated in this context.
that problem as the route can be changed instantaneously by lighting
Indeed, in ad- dition to a significantly lower external regulation as
on and off different holds. Each hold could be lit on and off as
compared to the control climbing lesson, enjoyment levels was also
requested. Therefore, routes could be changed instantaneously instead
significantly higher during the NLP climbing lesson compared to the
of going through the tedious process of changing the position or colour
control condition. This presence of higher enjoyment levels occurred
of the holds as how it is usually done with traditional climbing walls.
with no direct placebo effect (i.e., no difference between the control
As such, the instrumented climbing wall seemed particularly suitable
group and the placebo group), advocating for the necessity of
to infuse variability into learning environment, because the route,
pedagogical innovation when using ICT to increase enjoyment.
totally or par- tially, could be modified between and during trials. Such
Interestingly, the level of perceived competence was not lower during
exploration is hardly possible on a regular climbing wall.
the NLP climbing lessons. Even with the increased exploration
Although variability in practice is essential for learners to explore
allowed by the learning environment, partic- ipants did not feel
new movement patterns, an excessive amount of variability could also
threaten or anxious, as depicted by the significantly lower tense
impair the motor learning process (Cardis, Casadio, & Ranganathan,
subscale score as well as the similar subscale of perceived competence,
2018; Chow et al., 2011). If the amount of variability provided to be
which meant that participants were able to learn within the presence of
ex- plored by the learner is too much, it could have a negative impact
a safe exploration environment (Button et al., 2020).
as the amount of information is beyond the perceptive ability of the
In this research, the NLP or Placebo conditions did not lead to a
individ- ual (Uehara, Mawase, Therrien, Cherry-Allen, & Celnik,
sig- nificant increase in Intrinsic Motivation level. This is inconsistent
2019). On the other hand, if the variability present is insufficient, it
with some previous findings, as learning designs that provided
would not result in exploration and thus impede the development of
participants with the freedom to explore techniques that matched their
new movement pat- terns (Chow, Davids, Button, & Rein, 2008; Komar,
individual characteristics and allowed for the emergence of different
Potdevin, Chollet, & Seifert, 2019; Liu, Mayer-Kress, & Newell, 2006).
movement behaviours have shown to facilitate the increase in
Therefore, practition-
intrinsic motiva-
47
J. Komar, J.Y. Chow, M. Kawabata et al.
ers need to control the amount of variability infused into the learning
en- vironment that is manageable for the learner to promote optimal
learn- ing and effective exploration. While the feature of the electronic
climb- ing holds allows for that, the short period of time in this
experiment did not potentially allow for the individual to adapt the
amount of infused variability, which could have limited the impact of
NLP on the students’ motivation. For instance, the infused variability
was potentially too high for some learners (Komar, Ding, & Iodice,
2020), which could explain the lack of significant effect on some
psychological constructs. Practi- tioners should potentially control
individually the amount of informa- tion available to the climber by
adjusting the number of climbing holds that is visible during each
climb. The instrumented climbing wall has the potential to be a
valuable pedagogical tool to develop individual- ized and
developmentally appropriate learning environments.
The implementation of NLP, in particular, the infusion of
variability during the climbing lessons, was greatly facilitated through
the use of technology. The exploration that was induced during the
current study is difficult to achieve on a regular traditional climbing
wall. Partici- pants had the freedom to explore movement patterns that
best suited their unique individual characteristics thus resulting in
greater enjoy- ment levels (Moy et al., 2015). Furthermore, the range
of possibilities afforded by the electronic climbing holds to control
practice conditions and learning environments as well as the ability to
automatically mea- sure the students’ behaviours and performance
offers tremendous oppor- tunities for future use to enhance teaching
and learning. As such, prac- titioners should explore ways to integrate
technology tools into their practices, to purposefully foster pedagogical
innovations when it sup- ports content delivery and encourages
learning in meaningful ways.
Another feature of the instrumented wall is its ability to track and
assess the learners’ behaviour. More than just lighting on/off to indi-
cate and change the climbing routes, the climbing holds are equipped
with sensors that detects when the learner put his/her feet or hands
on a new hold or releases a previous hold. It can measure both perfor-
mance indicators (time of ascent and fluency) and the behaviour
(motor exploration). This kind of information can help practitioners to
direct the attention of the students on multiple aspect of the
performance and guide them with internal/external focus. Specifically,
receiving feed- backs, either specific on the students’ activity during
practice or simple knowledge on performance has been reported to be
positively related to motivational outcomes such as the ones measured
in this experiment (e.g., perceived competence, effort, enjoyment)
(Koka & Hein, 2003) and ICT could therefore enhance student’s
motivation.
The data can be provided instantaneously during the lessons as a
feedback, as well as exported for further computation for assessment
or research purpose. Both teachers and researchers could use this data
to track the quality and efficiency of the learners’ movement session
after session. In addition, the possibility to analyse climbers without
any equipment worn by the learner, provides a huge gain in time for
data collection and an ecological use of the equipment by teachers and
students on a daily basis.
5. Conclusion
This study serves as a practical example of how technology can be
used to foster pedagogical innovations which eventually resulted in
sig- nificant learning effect on learners. The variability and space for
explo- ration during the NLP lessons was facilitated through the use of
tech- nology in the form of the instrumented climbing wall. In that
sense, technology is an enabler for pedagogical innovations, rather
than just an innovation by itself. It highlights the potential benefits and
ways that ICT can be used to increase enjoyment level of students,
especially when it is underpinned by sound pedagogical principles.
Although the acute effect of the NLP condition was checked in this
study, the relatively short duration of practice in each condition is a
limitation of this experiment. Indeed, if receiving feedback, perceiving
himself or herself improving in the task, or simply exploring more
during practice really impacted the
Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2 (2022) 44–49
motivation of the students, those factors would benefit from longer du-
ration of practice to be more visible, therefore being more impactful on
student’s motivation. Another limitation is the use of questionnaires to
assess the motivation profile of the students. Indicators like their
willing- ness to continue climbing after the end of the PE cycle or to
participate in climbing as their co-curricular activity could be an
objective measure of intrinsic motivation.
Practitioners should relook how ICT is being used in PE, to move
away from merely using tablets or cameras during lessons but to really
examine what pedagogical gaps exists and how ICT could potentially
bridge that gap in order to innovate learning, teaching and assessment.
ICT could be used as a catalyst to enhance student learning where
prac- titioners utilize it as a resource to create quality learning
environments. Furthermore, there is a need for more studies to explore
the use of tech- nology and evaluate new creative ways in which ICT,
when integrated with a clear pedagogical purpose, could be used in PE
to aid practition- ers in their efforts to optimize students’ learning and
promote sustained attention and engagement. In addition, there could be
more focus on how ICT could be developed in practice to promote
learning meaning- fully and to meet the individual needs of diverse
learners. Future studies could also examine the long-term effects of ICT
integration efforts in fos- tering motor exploration within PE.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Institute of Education,
Nanyang Technological University [grant number SUG-NAP 7/18-JK].
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