Uraian Materi :
Policy seleksi / breeding yang dilakukan pada usaha ternak potong harus
disesuaikan dengan tujuan usaha itu sendiri misalnya untuk tujuan breeding, fattening
56
Tujuan untuk breeding yang jelas akan menunjukkan arah seleksi terhadap
perbaikan mutu genetik generasi berikutnya dan kemampuan reproduksi calon induk /
pejantan, termasuk produktivitas anak pada usaha peternakan tersebut. Dengan kata
lain, seleksi untuk tujuan breeding adalah memilih induk maupun pejantan yang
unggul. Produktivitas induk dapat dilihat dari breeding load yang efisien dengan
manajemen reproduksi yang benar / tepat, dalam hal ini perlu penerapan program
Inseminasi Buatan.
Sasaran :
Produksi yang mengarah pada mutu genetis yang baik, sesuai dengan tujuan
pemeliharaan
Tahap seleksi :
Pada sapi
Memilih betina yang berasal dari keturunan dengan produktivitas tinggi / baik.
Memilih betina yang sehat dan terbebas dari penyakit menular maupun
herediter.
Pada domba
Prinsip pemilihan betina pengganti pada domba hamper sama dengan sapi.
Dasar utama yang digunakan adalah kondisinya baik, kesehatan, kemampuan
menghasilkan susu yang dapat memenuhi kebutuhan cempenya. Adapun sebagai
acuan adalah :
Pada babi
Evaluasi babi dara pengganti dilakukan pada empat periode : saat lahir, saat
sapih, saat bobot badan sekitar 82 – 91 kg dan saat dikawinkan.
59
Dari segi reproduksi baik, ukuran vulva normal, pubertas satu bulan sebelum
perkawinan, berasal dari induk yang mempunyai jumlah anak sapih 9 – 10
anak per kelahiran. Ambing kompak, sekurang-kurangnya mempunyai 6
pasang puting.
Mempunyai BB lebih tinggi pada umur 170 hari dibandingkan dengan babi lain
yang ada dalam kelompok.
Seleksi pejantan
Pada sapi :
Pilih pejantan yang mempunyai fertilitas tinggi, lingkar skrotum pada umur 1
tahun berkisar 32 – 34 cm dan tidak kurang dari 34 cm pada umur 2 tahun
atau lebih.
Pada saat pejantan berdiri kedudukan kaki-kakinya harus kuat, terutama kaki
belakang. Kaki belakang akan menjadi tumpuan pada waktu pejantan mengawini
betina.
60
Fertilitas tinggi.
Pada seleksi babi pejantan, yang perlu diperhatikan adalah keadaan sifat-sifat
baik yang nantinya akan diturunkan pada anak-anaknya. Pejantan harus mampu
melayani betina sampai enam kali dalam seminggu dengan seks rasio 1 : 15.
Seleksi bakalan
Biaya pakan, termasuk bentuk, proporsi dan jumlah pakan yang harus
disediakan.
Biaya margin (selisih) antara pembelian bakalan dengan harga jual saat finish.
Ternak jantan akan tumbuh lebih cepat tumbuh dan efisien daripada ternak
betina, sebaiknya ternak jantan sudah dikastrasi.
Jumlah populasi
Penyebaran
Produksi karkas
2. Mata cerah, bulu bagus dan mengkilap serta panggul yang besar.
Secara umum yang menjadi dasar / pertimbangan dalam pemilihan ternak sapi yang
akan dipelihara peternak adalah :
Tipe ternak
Tahap seleksi :
Calon Induk
Calon Bakalan
Breeding
Calon Induk x calon pejantan
Bunting
Partus
Anak
Seleksi bakalan :
Beberapa faktor yang perlu diperhatikan dalam memilih bakalan adalah :
a. Bakalan memiliki efisiensi pakan yang tinggi
b. Umur bakalan masih muda
c. Sebaiknya memilih bakalan yang sudah dikastrasi
d. Sapi yang pada saat periode pertumbuhan memperoleh pakan berkualitas
rendah akan menghasilkan pertambahan bobot badan yanng lebih tinggi dari
pada sapi yang diberi pakan berkualitas baik (hal ini peluang untuk
memperoleh pertumbuhan kompensasi)
e. Sapi jantan akan tumbuh lebih cepat dan efisien daripada steer, sedangkan
steer tumbuh lebih baik daripada heifer, tetapi harga jual sapi jantan akan lebih
rendah.
Breeding
PEMILIHAN BIBIT
Bibit Ternak : semua ternak hasil proses penelitian dan pengkajian dan atau
ternak yang memenuhi persyaratan tertentu untuk dikembangkan
dan atau produksi
Bibit Sapi : pedet / sapi muda yang dipelihara untuk menjadi sapi potong baik
jantan maupun betina
Sapi Bibit : Sapi yang memenuhi persyaratan tertentu dan dibudidayakan untuk
reproduksi dengan tujuan utama produksi daging dan atau tenaga
kerja. Mani dan embrio termasuk didalam artian sapi bibit
- Ungaran
- Lembang
Prinsip IB :
Misal : untuk kawin alam ; satu ekor sapi jantan bisa mengawini 75-100 betina
Tetapi dengan IB, satu ekor sapi bisa untuk 7.500 – 10.000 betina (100x)
Misal : secara alami, betina bisa menghasilkan anak setiap tahun satu ekor,
tetapi dengan embrio transfer bisa menghasilkan anak lebih banyak.
Caranya betina disuntik dengan hormon agar terjadi super ovulasi, sehingga bisa
mengahasilkan ovum lebih dari satu (bisa sampai 10)
Embrio diambil dititipkan pada betina lain (resipien) yang sudah siap bunting
(caranya : disuntik dengan hormon penyerentakan berahi)
Catatan dilakukan oleh perusahaan besar (di Indonesia biasa dilakukan pada
ternak perah; ternak potong masih jarang)
Rumus yang sangat terkenal untuk menaksir BB adalah Rumus Schrool, yaitu :
BB = (LD + 22) 2
100
Kalau digunakan untuk sapi-sapi di Indonesia (sapi tropis) Bos Indicus biasanya
terlalu berat;
Misal : LD = 100 cm
BB = (100+22)2 = (122)2
100 100
= 148,86 kg
yang cocok :
BB = (LD+5)2
100
BB = (100+5)2
100
= 110,25 kg
Selisih : 38 kg untuk sapi-sapi gemuk; untuk sapi-sapi kurus lebih kecil lagi;
lebih-lebih untuk pedet
a. Sapi potong :
- Bobot pada umur tertentu (bobot lahir, bobot sapih, bobot dewasa)
- Kecepatan pertumbuhan
c. Babi :
- Seleksi Indeks
- melihat
- memegang / meraba
- permukaan tubuh sempit agar kontak dengan udara luar sesedikit mungkin
- Penghasil daging :
- Penghasil wool :
- mata bersinar
- kulit elastis
Contoh standar
* Sapi Madura
70
1. Sifat Kualitatif
a. Warna : merah bata / merah coklat bercampur putih dengan batas yang
tidak jelas pada bagian paha
c. Bentuk badan : tubuh kecil, kaki pendek ; betina tidak berpunuk, jantan
punuk berkembang baik dan jelas
2. Sifat Kuantitatif
a. Tinggi gumba :
b. Umur ternak :
Jantan : 24 – 36 bulan (min. punya 1 ps. gigi tetap, max punya 2 ps.)
Standar Umum
a. Babi bibit Parent Stock harus mempunyai surat keterangan atau jaminan dari
perusahaan Babi Bibit Grand Parent Stocknya; mengenai : warna, bentuk
badan dan kualitasnya sebagai babi bibit.
b. Babi bibit Parent Stock harus sehat dan bebas dari cacat fisik seperti : cacat
mata (kebutaan), pincang, lumpuh, kaki dan kuku abnormal serta tidak
terdapat kelainan tulang punggung atau cacat tubuh lainnya.
c. Semua bibit Parent Stock betina harus bebas dari cacat alat reproduksi.
abnormal ambing serta tidak menunjukkan gejala kemandulan.
d. Babi bibit Parent stock jantan harus siap sebagai pejantan serta tidak
menderita cacat pada alat kelaminnya, terutama testis harus satu pasang.
Standar Khusus :
71
- Betina : 5 bulan
- Jantan : 5 bulan
- Betina : 80 – 90 kg
- Jantan : 80 – 90 kg
c. Berasal dari tetua Induk dengan jumlah anak lahir hidup per kelahiran :
e. Rataan pbbh :
5. Calon Pejantan
- Testis normal
6. Calon induk
- Ambing normal
Sapi Potong
- Sapi Madura
- Sapi Bali
- Sapi Ongole
- Kerbau
Sifat kualitatif :
- Warna
- Tanduk
- Bentuk Badan
Sifat Kuantitatif :
- tinggi Gumba
- Umur
Warna sapi Brahman tidak Uniform , karena terbentuk dari empat (4) bangsa, yaitu :
- Sapi Gir
- Sapi Nellore
- Sapi Gujarat
73
Sapi PO
- Sekarang sudah tidak begitu disukai, karena penggunaan sebagai tenaga kerja
sudah berkuarang (diganti dengan traktor)
- Yang lebih disukai adalah Simmental, karena hasil daging baik; tetapi pakan
harus lebih baik
Sapi Jantan:
Sapi Betina :
- Sama dengan sapi, hanya ditambah : Jantan dan betina dari keturunan kembar !
Babi :
3. Standar Mutu Bibit babi Lokal (babi Jawa, babi Sumatra, babi Bali)
Standar Umum :
Standar Khusus
- Bobot ternak
74
Klasifikasi Bibit
1. Secara Umum
- Spesifikasi tertentu
- Mempunyai silsilah
- Spesifikasi tertentu
- Mempunyai silsilah
- Spesifikasi ternentu
- Spesifikasi tertentu
- Spesifikasi tertentu
- Spesifikasi tertentu
- Spesifikasi tertentu
F1
F2
F3
Betina hasil persilangan sebaiknya dibeli oleh pemerintah; digunakan untuk bibit;
jangan sampai keluar dari kawasan tesebut
Secara umum pada pemilihan bibit ternak, harus diperhatikan sehat tidaknya
ternak calon bibit. Adapun tanda-tanda ternak sehat adalah :
d. Sikap berdiri tegak, kuat dan semua bagian tubuh didukung oleh keempat
kaki dengan teracak yang rata
f. Nafsu makan cukup baik, bila diberi ransum lain cepat menyesuaikan
a. Sapi harus sehat dan bebas dari segala cacat fisik seperti : cacat mata
(kebutaan), tanduk patah, pincang, lumpuh, kaki dan bulu abnormal
b. Sapi bibit betina harus bebas dari cacat alat reproduksi, abnormal ambing
serta tidak menunjukkan gejala kemandulan
c. Sapi bibit jantan harus siap sebagai pejantan serta tidak menderita cacat pada
alat kelaminnya
Sifat Kualitatif :
b. Tanduk : relatif pendek, pada yang betina lebih pendek dibanding jantan
c. Bentuk badan : kepala relatif pendek dengan profil melengkung. Punuk besar
mengarah ke leher, lipatan-lipatan kulit yang terdapat di bawah perut dan leher
menuju ke arah leher, kaki panjang dan kokoh
77
Sifat Kuantitatif :
a. Kerbau bibit harus sehat dan bebas dari segala cacat fisik seperti cacat mata
(kebutaan), tanduk patah, pincang, lumpuh, kaki dan kuku abnormal serta
tidak terdapat kelainan tulang
b. Semua Kerbau bibit betina harus bebas dari cacat alat reproduksi, abnormal
ambing serta tidak menunjukkan gejala kemandulan
c. Kerbau bibit jantan harus siap sebagai pejantan serta tidak menderita cacat
pada alat kelaminnya
Sifat Kualitatif :
a. Warna : kulit berwarna abu-abu, hitam serta bulu berwarna abu-abu sampai
hitam
c. Bentuk badan : kondisi badan baik, bagian belakang penuh dengan otot yang
berkembang, leher kompak dan kuat serta mempunyai proporsi yang
sebanding dengan badan dana kepala, ambing berkembang dan simetris
Sifat Kuantitatif :
Kriteria pemilihan bibit yang biasa digunakan sebagai pedoman dalam rangka
melakukan seleksi terhadap ternak domba dan kambing adalah :
a. Sehat; tanda-tanda domba dan kambing yang sehat antara lain : mata
bersinar dan bersih, bulu mengkilat dan bersih, selaput lendir mata dan
kulit tidak pucat, gerakannya aktif, hidung dan mulut tidak mengeluarkan
cairan, dan anus tampak bersih
c. Kesuburan; induk yang subur adalah yang memliki banyak anak setiap
melahrikan
Silsilah adalah suatu catatan tertulis dari keadaan yang lampau, serta suatu
estimasi akan penampilan seekor ternak. Sebagai contoh seekor pejantan yang telah
menurunkan anak-anak dengan bobot sapih tinggi serta mempunyai anak yang
79
kualitas wool atau karkas yang bagus, maka dapat diharapkan pejantan itu memang
mampu meneruskan sifat-sifat baik tersebut kepada keturunannya.
Agar diperoleh hasil yang baik pada penilaian dengan pengamatan, maka
perlu dilakukan pengamatan dari samping, muka dan belakang.
Secara umum tubuh tampak besar, bagian atas dan bawah tubuh rata, kaki
pendek, lurus dan kuat
Moncong besar berbentuk segi empat dengan lubang hidung cukup lebar, mata
besar, dada dalam dan jarak kedua kaki depan relatif lebar
Mulai dari bahu sampai ke ujung pantat cukup lebar, padat dan berisi
a. Sehat, tubuh besar (sesuai umur), relatif panjang dan tidak cacat
d. Tumit tinggi
e. Penampilan gagah
Pada umumnya para ahli dalam memilih ternak babi untuk dipelihara dapat
menggunakan 4 (empat) dasar pemilihan, yaitu :
c. Penampilan ternak
Pemilihan bibit dalam usaha ternak potong babi, bila ditinjau dari sudut tujuan
pemeliharaan dapat dibedakan menjadi 2(dua) golongan, yaitu :
a. Pemilihan bibit babi bakalan (jantan dan betina) untuk tujuan produksi anak
- Kesehatan ternak
- Laju pertumbuhan
- Efisiensi pakan
- Kesehatan ternak
Memilih babi dara atau pejantan muda paling sedikit harus sebaik keduanya
(induk/pejantannya) atau lebih superior dalam hal produk, kualitas dan performance
yang potensial yang dapat diteruskan keturunannya dikelak kemudian hari.
b. Berbadan sehat, mata bersih dan bersinar, gerakannya lincah, serta berat
badannya sesuai dengan standar berat badan masing-masing bangsa/jenis ternak
d. Memiliki kaki yang kokoh dan lurus sehingga mampu menopang beban dari berat
pejantan waktu kawin maupun berat masa bunting
f. Mempunyai sifat performans seperti laju pertumbuhan dan koefisien pakan yang
lebih baik dari ternak biasa atau rata-rata ternak
a. Berasal dari tetua atau nenek moyang yang berkualaita genetik baik
b. Berbadan sehat, mata bersih dan bersinar, gerakannya lincah, berat badannya
sesuai dengan standar berat badan masing-masing bangsa/jenis babi
c. Memiliki kaki yang kuat dan tegak serta letaknya baik agar bebas bergerak
Manajemen reproduksi
Kemampuan reproduksi :
Libido sexualis
Kualitas sperma / ovum
Kemampuan fisik
Litter size
Produksi susu induk
83
Mothering ability
Efisiensi reproduksi :
Service per conception
Breeding load
Deteksi berahi
Animal crop
Farrowing index
Conception rate / pregnation rate
Agar perkembangbiakan ternak cepat :
Fertilitas induk yang baik, kalau mungkin sampai dengan 100 % induk yang
bunting, hal ini dapat dilakukan dengan seleksi yang terarah.
Seleksi awal untuk pemilihan induk dan pejantan (breeding stock) harus tepat.
Pola perkawinan
Dengan kawin silang antara pejantan unggul terpilih dengan betina lokal.
TATALAKSANA PERKAWINAN
A. Pubertas
Pubertas terjadi sebelum seekor ternak mencapai dewasa tubuh atau body maturity
yang dicapai apabila bobot badan sudah mencapai 50-70 persen dari bobot badan
dewasa.
Pada ternak jantan, pubertas dicapai apabila androgen dan sperma telah
diproduksi, organ-organ reproduksi telah masak, penis telah terbebas dari selubung
dan ternak tersebut mengawini betina dan betina tersebut dapat bunting.
Pada ternak betina pubertas adalah umur dimana terjadi berahi pertama
disertai dengan ovulasi secara spontan. Satu atau lebih ovulasi tenang dapat terjadi
sebelum ternak betina menunjukkan tanda-tanda berahi yang berhubungan dengan
ovulasi. Frekuensi ovulasi tenang ini sangat tergantung dari efisiensi estrus secara
luas. Umur berahi pertama pada ternak betina bervariasi, pada umumnya disebabkan
karena perkawinan dan perbedaan laju pertumbuhan.
Pada sapi-sapi potong yang ada di Indonesia, pubertas terjadi pada umur
antara 11 – 15 bulan. Untuk sapi-sapi Zebu biasanya terjadi pada umur 18 – 24
bulan, pada sapi-sapi Eropa dicapai pada umur 16 – 18 bulan.
Pubertas babi jantan dicapai pada umur 5 – 8 bulan, babi jantan muda
sebaiknya dibiarkan mencapai umur 8-9 bulan sebelum dipakai untuk mengawini
betina. Seekor babi betina mencapai pubertas pada umur sekitar 5 -8 bulan, dan
umur yang dianjurkan untuk perkawinan pertamanya adalah 8-10 bulan.
Sejak tercapainya pubertas, terjadilah berahi pada ternak yang tidak bunting,
menurut suatu siklus yang ritmis dan khas bagi jenis-jenis ternak tertentu. Interval
antara satu periode estrus ke periode berikutnya disebut siklus estrus. Sapi, kerbau,
domba, kambing dan babi termasuk hewan poli estrus, karena siklus estrusnya
berkesinambungan; musim atau iklim tidak mempengaruhi terjadinya siklus estrus ini.
Pada ternak jantan, siklus berahi tidak ada, pada umumnya pejantan selalu bersedia
menerima ternak betina untuk aktivitas reproduksi.
f. Keluar lendir transparan dari servik yang mengalir melalui vulva dan vagina.
Lama berahi dan siklus berahi pada berbagai jenis ternak berbeda-beda.
Untuk ternak sapi siklus berahi datang sekali dalam 18-24 hari, dengan rata-rata 21
hari, sedang lama berahi berkisar 6-30 jam, dengan rata-rata 17 jam dan ovulasi
terjadi 9-11 jam setelah selesainya estrus.
Kerbau betina memperlihatkan siklus berahi yang normal selama kurang lebih
tiga minggu. Di Indonesia, siklus berahi pada kerbau Lumpur berkisar antara 17-29
hari, dengan rata-rata 21,53 hari. Lama berahi ternak kerbau lebih lama daripada
sapi, yaitu berkisar antara 24-36 jam, dengan rata-rata 17,65 jam.
Lama siklus berahi normal pada domba berkisar antara 14-19 hari, dengan
rata-rata 17 hari, lama berahi pada domba-domba lokal di Indonesia berkisar antara
24-48 jam, dengan rta-rata 35,5 jam.
Lama berahi pada kambing 24-45 jam. Berahi akan terulang lagi sekitar 19
hari kemudian (apabila tidak dikawinkan atau gagal bunting).
Siklus berahi pada babi mencapai 19-23 hari, dengan rata-rata 21 hari, berahi
berlangsung antara 1-4 hari, dengan rata-rata 2-3 hari.
Salah satu faktor yang penting dalam perkawinan adalah deteksi berahi, oleh
karena itu pengetahuan tentang tanda-tanda berahi, siklus berahi dan ovulasi
menjadikan hal yang penting untuk dikuasai.
Secara umum deteksi berahi pada ternak dapat dilakukan dengan tiga cara,
yaitu :
C. Perkawinan
a. Perkawinan Alam
Perkawinan hanya mungkin terjadi antara ternak jantan dengan ternak betina yang
berahi, dimana ternak betina mau menerima ternak jantan. Perkawinan alam ini
tidak diragukan keberhasilannya, karena semen yang diejakulasikan tanpa
pengenceran dan didesposisikan pada ―portiovaginalis services‖ atau mulut servic.
Ada tiga macam perkawinan yang dapat terjadi pada ternak, yaitu:
b. Grading up, adalah perkawinan antara pejantan unggul dengan sapi lokal
yang diarahkan pada keturunan pejantan
c. Cross breeding, adalah perkawinan antara dua bangsa yang telah diketahui
dengan seksama masing-masing kemampuan produksinya.
dilepas bersama-sama. Apabila terdapat sapi yang berahi, tanpa campur tangan
manusia atau pemilik akan terjadi perkawinan.
Dengan manajeman perkawinan yang baik, ternak domba dan kambing dapat
melahirkan setiap 8 atau 9 bulan sekali. Hal ini dapat dicapai dengan penyapihan
anak pada umur 3-4 bulan, walaupun pada umur dua bulan induk sudah dapat
dikawinkan kembali.
Pada babi betina, perkawinan dapat dilakukan antara 12-30 jam setelah
tampak estrus, tetapi untuk babi induk yang durasi estrus sampai terjadinya ovulasi
lebih panjang, maka saat perkawinan dapat dilakukan 18-36 jam setelah estrus
tampak.
Babi jantan dewasa (umur lebih dari 10 bulan) dapat dikawinkan 6 kali
perminggu tanpa menunjukkan kejelekan fertilitas, sedangkan pada pejantan muda
(umur 6-7 bulan) dimana testisnya masih kecil dikawinkan 2 kali perminggu.
90
Babi induk setelah anaknya disapih dapat dipercepat estrusnya bila kontak
langsung dengan pejantan. Pengandangan induk yang menyusui dekat pejantan
juga dapat mempercepat estrus.
Latihan soal
1. Jelaskan tujuan dilakukan seleksi pada ternak potong !
2. Jelaskan bagaimana pola perkawinan pada sapi potong!
3. Jelaskan macam2 perkawinan yang terjadi pada ternak !
4. Jelaskan indikator untuk menentukan bangsa sapi yang akan dipelihara
sebagai ternak potong !
5. Jelaskan kriteria untuk memilih ternak domba pejantan !
RANGKUMAN SINGKAT
Tujuan untuk breeding yang jelas akan menunjukkan arah seleksi terhadap
perbaikan mutu genetik generasi berikutnya dan kemampuan reproduksi calon induk /
pejantan, termasuk produktivitas anak pada usaha peternakan tersebut.
Pola seleksi & breeding pada usaha ternak potong dilakukan dengan sasaran
peningkatkan produksi yang mengarah pada mutu genetis yang baik, sesuai dengan
tujuan pemeliharaan.
Agar perkembangbiakan ternak cepat dapat dilakukan dengan cara mengatur
manajemen perkawinan yang benar / tepat, diusahakan S/C = 1 dengan farrowing
index tinggi, kawin pertama dilakukan pada saat dewasa tubuh, fertilitas induk yang
baik, pakan harus cukup dalam kuantitas dan kualitas, seleksi awal untuk pemilihan
induk dan pejantan (breeding stock) harus tepat, pengendalian / penanggulangan
penyakit, perawatan kandang dan lainnya harus baik.
92
Bahan tambahan
INTRODUCTION
Evaluating livestock is a basic skill needed by anyone who raises livestock. Selecting
animals is the same as judging them because you evaluate each individual based on
the merits of the ideal animals. Livestock can be evaluated for their potential as either
breeding animals or market animals. Different characteristics are selected for based
on the purpose of the animal.
The Boer goat was developed in South Africa as a breed meant solely for meat
production. Because of intense breeding over the past 50 years or more by South
African goat breeders, the Boer goat is considered far superior to any other breed for
93
meat production. These compact, muscular goats have a high growth rate, muscular
carcass, good fertility, and functional conformation. Boer goats are white with red
heads. They have pigmented skin and roman noses. Under good nutritional
conditions, Boer goat crossbreds (especially with Nubians) produce outstanding
weight gains and carcasses.
Nubians:
This breed is used for both milk and meat production. They are a large, proud,
graceful breed with roman noses and long, pendulous ears. They can be any color.
Kids have a high growth rate and are generally fleshier than other dairy breeds. They
are used to crossbreed in many operations because they can improve milk production
and muscling.
These smaller-bodies goats are found mainly in Texas and were originally were used
for clearing brush and maintaining pasture. Smaller, more agile goats are dominant in
the wild. Body shape and size, ear shape, horns, hair, and color vary greatly due to
climate, terrain, and available breeding stock. Because of the recent increased
94
demand for goat meat in the south, wild Spanish goats are being crossbred with
larger dairy and angora goats to produce a meatier animal
PARTS OF A GOAT
In order to describe the merits of goats, one should first learn the parts of the animal.
This will help in describing positive and negative merits possessed by each individual.
It is also helpful to know these parts when evaluating breed characteristics.
Parts of a Goat
pounds.
Livestock judging
Once you know what the major breeds of livestock are, what they look like, and the
external parts, you can begin to appreciate why it takes considerable practice to
become a good judge of livestock. Before you start judging livestock, try to make a
mental image of the perfect animal. You can do this by recalling the most desirable
features of the high-quality animals that you have seen and thinking of them as
belonging to one animal. You can also study pictures of champions, show reports,
current livestock magazines, or ―ideal-type‖ pictures from the breed associations.
Each time you evaluate a individual animal or analyze a group of livestock, you
should rely on a system of observing the animals. Listed below are a few pointers for
evaluating an animal or group of livestock:
1. Stand back—Allow enough room between yourself and the animals so that you
can see all animals at one time. Usually, 25 to 30 feet is a good distance from
which to view the animals. You should become skilled in evaluating livestock
from a distance and handle the animals only to confirm your observations. It is
a mistake to evaluate an animal only with the hands. Market goats are often
placed on visual appraisal and handling.
96
2. Three angles—Try to look at the animals from the side, front, and rear.
Compare each animal to the others in the group and to the ―ideal‖ animal that
you have pictured in your mind.
3. Big things first—Always look for and analyze the good and bad characteristics
of each animal, in major areas such as: frame size, volume, condition,
muscling, structural correctness, movement, and breed character. Learn to
study the animals carefully. Concentrate on the parts where we get the high-
priced cuts. A keen livestock judge is orderly and never haphazard. Make your
evaluation decisions according to the big things, unless a pair of animals is
very similar, in which case you must analyze the minor differences between
the animals.
4. Close inspection— When you are near the animals for close inspection or
handling, you should simply confirm the decisions you made at a distance. If
an animal appears or handles differently than what it looked like from a
distance, and if the difference merits consideration, then change your decision.
During close inspection of goats, move quietly and cautiously so the animals
don’t become nervous or excited. The following section deals with a suggested
method of handling goats:
SUMMARY
Evaluating livestock is a skill that takes many years and much practice to perfect.
After purchasing your first livestock, it may take years to breed a group of animals
that best fits your needs. Be sure to stay current with industry standards as you work
toward your goal
101
REPRODUCTION IN LIVESTOCK
Introduction
The process which starts with conception and ends with the birth of offspring,
is one of the real marvels of nature. After puberty, when animals become capable of
reproduction, a host of hormones interplay to result in female animals showing
symptoms of heat, or oestrus, on a regular basis. During oestrus, females are
receptive to males. Oestrus is exhibited at fixed intervals, the length of which varies
between species, and the so-called oestrus cycles are interrupted only by pregnancy,
or severe stress, including poor nutrition. The signs of oestrus also vary from species
to species. Cattle producers practicing artificial insemination in the absence of bulls
rely on the homosexual behaviour of cows, which mount each other during oestrus, to
identify animals on heat. Oestrus lasts longer in mature cows than in young heifers,
and longer in European cattle breeds than in indigenous breeds. The duration of
oestrus, the length of the oestrus cycle and other reproductive data for different
species are provided in the table overleaf.
At some time during, or after the end of each oestrus, one or more egg cells or
ova are released from the female reproductive organs, the ovaries. Should fertilization
of an ovum by a sperm occur, an example in nature of extreme ―wastage‖ takes
place. It requires only one sperm to fertilize an ovum, but between 800 and 20 000
million sperm, depending on species, are released at one time by males.
102
This wastage is, however, necessary to ensure the survival of animals, since
many millions of sperm die prior to reaching the released ovum or ova. Subsequent to
fertilization, another marvel of nature occurs. The tiny fertilized ovum acts as a signal
to indicate that the female is now pregnant, and the normal cycle of hormonal events,
including oestrus and ovulation, is interrupted to ensure the maintenance of
pregnancy. Shortly prior to birth, a host of hormonal events again takes place, to
ensure the initiation of the birth process, and milk production.
Criterion Species
Cattle Sheep & Pigs Horses
Goats
Age at puberty 8 - 15 5–6 5-6 12 – 18
(months)
Recommended mating 20 - 24 15 7-9 36
age (months)
Length of oestrus 18 – 24 16 – 18 19 - 22 18 – 24
cycle (days) (average 21) (average 17)
Length of oestrus 10 - 24 hours 24 - 48 hours 18 - 48 4 - 9 days
Time of ovulation 6 - 14 hours Late oestrus 18 - 48 36 - 48 hours
after oestrus hours after before end of
start of oestrus
oestrus
Length of pregnancy 9 months 5 months 3 months 3 11 months
weeks 3
days
In these systems, 3 to 4 males per 100 females are required. In systems where
males are run with females all year round, only 1 male per 100 females will be
required for beef and sheep production.
Assuming that female stock are healthy, their body condition or weight at
mating is the factor which exerts the greatest influence on their ability to conceive.
Farmers should thus aim to manage their animals so that target weights and
conditions are met. For example, beef heifers should attain 75% of their mature
weight when mated at 2 years of age. Mature cows have the best chance of
104
conceiving when reaching 100% of their mature weight at mating. Only about 50% of
females will conceive when reaching 75% of their mature weight at mating.
The chances of reaching acceptable target weights are maximized when feed
resources are matched with the nutritional requirements of beef cows. Thus, calving
should be arranged to occur in late winter or early spring, so that cows with suckling
calves, which have a high feed demand, can utilize good quality, actively growing
spring and summer veld. After weaning in autumn, dry cows will have a low feed
requirement and can then utilize poorer quality winter veld grazing.
Diseases, and poor control of internal and external parasites in females can
suppress their ability to reproduce. Farmers are therefore advised to consult with
veterinarians and other experts to plan effective vaccination, dosing and dipping
programmes.
The late Dr Geoff Harwin stated that a preoccupation with high absolute
production levels coaxed breeders beyond the bounds of functionally efficient cattle,
and that genetic resources must be matched to the production situation. The problem
is exacerbated by the preoccupation of managers with setting goals, often without a
prior, but essential, resource evaluation. All too often, goals are set well beyond the
physiological bounds possible given the breed of cattle involved under the relevant
105
Since the discovery that characteristics are transmitted by genes, there has
been argument and speculation, as well as research, to determine the importance
and contribution of environmental factors in relation to inherited factors as
determinants of different characteristics, especially production related factors.
Previous studies are useful to decide how heritable a characteristic is and how
important environmental influences are in causing or modifying the relevant
characteristic. The advice of experts can be obtained or the literature of
previous studies consulted.
If the characteristic appears only in some breeding groups and not in others,
further questions need to be asked. If different bulls were used and all the
animals were subjected to the same environmental influences, the bulls must
be investigated. On the other hand, if environments were different, the origin of
the characteristic could be the result of environmental factors.
Problems that arise when there is a change in the environment, for example
animals are moved into a new grazing paddock, must be investigated to try
and isolate possible environmental causes such as the presence of a different
plant in the new paddock.
The measurement of certain traits is difficult. Thus, carcass merit can only be
fully evaluated once an animal is dead. The selection of breeding bulls on carcass
merit is therefore only possible through progeny testing.
In many countries it has been shown that the beef industry has a tiered
structure. At the top of the structure are the bull-producers, which can be stud herds,
with increaser herds below that and the mass of commercial meat producers forming
the basis of the structure. Ideally, genetic material should flow freely from the top of
the structure to the bottom, and it should be possible to move superior genetic
material from the base of the structure to the seedstock herds at the top.
Unfortunately, there is a tendency to create a barrier between the stud herds and
commercial herds, which allows genetic material to move down towards the
commercial herds, but prevents or limits the upward movement of genes to the stud
herds. This barrier is often based on perceived economic advantages, which are in no
way related to genetic improvement. A common misconception is that the cattle in
commercial herds are of an inferior quality, whereas it has been shown that there are
very high performing cows and bulls in most commercial beef herds.
In South Africa the beef industry does not have a clearly definable structure. In
KwaZulu-Natal there are well established stud breeders and a number of farmers
providing a very large variety of different bulls, including pure-bred bulls as well as so-
called "types" and "composites". A recent change has been a movement towards
using home-bred bulls. The number and variety of bulls available can be confusing to
commercial producers. When commercial producers suddenly change their choice of
breed, flooding of the bull market with certain bulls follows, with a concomitant
shortage of bulls of other breeds.
Purebred bulls and cows imported from other countries are the basis of most
pure-bred herds in South Africa. Upgrading assisted most breeds to increase
numbers rapidly, also leading to broadening of the genetic base of most breeds
compared to their overseas counterparts. In the early 1950's to 1960's, there was a
trend to close breeds i.e. only allow the use of pure-bred breeding stock into
registered herds. This did not last very long and upgrading was re-introduced for most
breeds. Based on research, many breed societies allowed a substantial shortening of
the upgrading route prior to acceptance of cows as full stud. Recently a number of
108
breed societies have allowed the use of related breeds to be used for the
improvement of certain traits in their own animals e.g. the use of Gelbvieh to improve
certain conformational characteristics in the South Devon.
Apart from certain exceptions like the Afrikaner, prior to 1950 indigenous cattle
were not fully accepted as worthy of consideration for beef production. Lately,
indigenous cattle are becoming part of the South African beef production scene and
breed societies looking after the interests of local cattle breeds have arisen.
Seedstock herds
Commercial herds
Some traits that commercial breeders consider for selection goals, include :
109
Mature mass.
Mothering ability.
Carcass traits.
Conformation.
time. The experience gained running small cattle numbers where the animals are
seen and worked with almost daily assists in providing valuable experience.
Maximising profits and maximising production are not always one and the
same thing in beef farming. Profit is the difference between input and return. Thus,
breeding larger bulls (higher growth rate) or selecting for higher weaning mass, could
be necessary for some production systems. In other production systems, bigger
animals with higher weaning weights could be a liability because larger animals eat
more and mature later, which could narrow the margin between input and return.
Genetic merit will not make up for poor management or create a profit by the
ability of superior breeding material to overcome deficiencies in feeding. Genetically
superior animals only make it possible for a farmer to exploit good management
maximally.
Most traits of economic significance, like growth rate and milk production, are
multigenic in character i.e. are subject to the principles of population genetics. The
importance of one- and two-factor inheritance is mainly related to traits such as coat
colour, horned versus polled cattle and the inheritance of unwanted recessive traits
like bulldog calves and dwarf calf syndrome, amongst others.
it is quantitative in character.
With Mendelian genetics, once a carrier of a recessive lethal gene has been
identified, the relevant animal can be used to diagnose the presence or absence of
the relevant gene in a population. In practice, using marker bulls to detect the
presence of specific genes in a cattle population is only used in the artificial
insemination industry.
The most powerful tool available to the breeder to bring about changes in the
genetic composition of a population, is selection. It is noteworthy that change is not
always progress. Thus selection for high growth rates could produce beef animals
exhibiting late carcass maturity. If steers are intended for feedlotting, this could be an
advantage, whereas pasture-based production systems require early maturing types.
For effective selection to take place, it is necessary for the breeder to set
goals. The characteristic the breeder intends to select for will influence what selection
procedures must be followed. The set goals will determine the management practices
which will be most cost and time effective.
In the setting of goals, the gene frequency of the gene directing the
characteristic under consideration affects the effectiveness of the selection procedure
(Formula 1 - if h2 (heritability) of a trait is high, genetic change ( G) is increased, and
the converse is true). If the gene is not present in the population, no degree of
selection will achieve an increase in gene frequency because h2 = 0. On the other
hand, when gene frequency is very high or the desired gene is a recessive gene,
breeding progress will be slow. The response to selection is best where the desired
gene is present at intermediate frequency levels.
For the purposes of the following discussions, when examining Formula 2 one
need not put actual values to the factors to the right of the equal sign, but it must be
noted that increasing any factors above the division line, will increase G, whereas
increasing factors below the division line, will decrease G. The converse of these
statements is true.
Accuracy of selection
For the beef breeder, accuracy has two meanings i.e. accuracy in itself and
accuracy as it is affected by how applicable a measurement is to the trait it is
intended to evaluate.
Measurements on relatives.
and subject to beliefs and ideas that are not always well supported by scientific
evidence. Or selection for carcass merit can be based on the carcass characteristics
of a sample of slaughtered progeny of the relevant bull.
Intensity of selection
Genetic variation
The larger the gene pool selected from, the greater the probability of finding
animals carrying the desired trait. The size of a gene pool is influenced by :
In large herds with relatively high genetic variation, genetic gain is greater than
in relatively small herds. Gene pools can be enlarged by bringing in genetic material
from other herds, for example buying in a bull. Highly inbred cattle have relatively little
genetic variation so that even large herds do not exhibit adequate genetic variation to
allow genetic change.
114
Generation interval
Allowing heifers to calve at two years of age will reduce generation interval by
one year compared to calving heifers for the first time at three years of age. However,
age at first calving has a lesser role as a determinant of generation interval. The
major effect on generation interval is replacement rate in the breeding herd.
Replacing 20% of the cows in a herd annually, will imply that cows remain in the herd
for 5 years from date of first calving. Replacing 25% of cows annually will mean that
cows remain in the herd for 4 years from date of first calving, thus reducing
generation interval by one year. Where cows remain highly productive to a relatively
old age, replacement rate can be reduced to 10% and although generation interval is
then low, selection pressure on heifers is high.
Progeny testing is a powerful tool for increasing accuracy of selection, but has
an adverse effect on generation interval. A good example is found in the AI (artificial
insemination) industry. The semen of bulls can be stored and records kept of the
performance of its progeny. If the progeny performs well, the semen of this proven
bull can be used again, often long after the bull has ceased to produce semen. It is
then possible to predict the result of breeding accurately, but a generation or two
could be lost in the process.
Selection methods :
It has been said that: "Individuality tells us what an animal seems to be, his pedigree
tells us what he ought to be, but the performance of his progeny tells us what he is".
Of all the selection procedures, individual selection has had the greatest
impact on genetic gain for a number of years, merely because it is the most
commonly used method of selection. The other selection procedures have had their
main impact in the stud industry and with AI (artificial insemination). With the
availability of computerized data processing (including BLUP: Best Linear Unbiased
Predictor), pedigree and progeny selection can be expected to become increasingly
important in beef breeding.
When selecting for more than one trait at a time, there are three practices
commonly used :
Minimum culling levels, where a value is attached to all the traits selected for
and a minimum index level set. Any individual falling short in one or more traits
is culled.
Tandem selection, in which one trait of an array of traits is selected for and
once the trait is established within the herd to the breeder's satisfaction, the
116
next trait receives attention. The process is maintained until all the traits in the
array have been accounted for.
Index selection, whereby all the chosen traits are measured concurrently and
the relevant measurements included in a formula which is used to obtain a
selection index (breeding value) for each individual on which selection is then
based.
In most beef herds minimum culling levels are used. The main disadvantage is
that where an individual is weak in one trait but strong in one or more other traits, the
relevant individual and its strong points are culled. With tandem selection, the
practical problem is that when selection for the second or higher level traits in the
selection array are being selected for, the traits selected for previously tend to sag. To
overcome these difficulties, index selection was developed and, although genetic gain
on any one trait is slow, overall gain is maximised using this selection procedure.
Farmers are advised to make use of an expert to design their selection indices
because correct design is important to ensure good results.
Does a breeder select for a certain trait, or does he cull against a trait?
In the case of bull selection, there is no doubt that a breeder goes out and
selects a bull he believes will impart the desired trait or traits to his herd. He is
therefore selecting for a desired trait.
Because there is evidence that the emphasis in breeding has moved from bull
selection to cow selection, the question arises whether this principle holds for the cow
herd.
It is clear that he is selecting against poor performers and not selecting for
good performers. The difference is very subtle, but has very important repercussions.
Not only does an approach of "culling against" reduce the number of good cows lost
to a herd, the approach also enlarges the size of the gene pool the farmer is working
with.
From these considerations, it can be concluded that breeders will gain the
most by deciding on a goal, selecting against animals lacking the desired trait and
spending their valuable time on the most important aspect of beef breeding, namely
management. The principle is:
Cull poor doers and leave selection of the best cow to the hobbyist.
Correlated traits
The use of correlated traits in selection is often the only way in which genetic
gain can be achieved for characteristics which cannot be readily measured. An
example is to use hip-height as an indicator of carcass maturity type. After all, once
an animal is slaughtered, it cannot be used for breeding, unless semen is drawn
previously.
There are hidden dangers in using correlated traits in selection. The most
important is that a correlation only exists within the population in which it is measured.
Once selection has taken place, we are no longer working with the same population
and it is possible that the correlation no longer exists. In practice this difficulty does
not often cause problems, but should be kept in mind because in cases where
correlation between traits disappeared, genetic gain suffered severe setbacks when it
was assumed that selection for the correlated trait continued to promote the desired
trait. Breeders should therefore always continue to check that the correlation has not
been lost before major decisions on breeding policy are taken.
Jan Bonsma will be remembered for his many contributions to the breeding
industry. One of his main contentions was that genotypes must be adapted to the
environment within which they live. When deciding on a selection procedure, the
118
effect of environment must be considered and it is ideal for selection to take place
within the environment where production will take place. Thus, should the intention be
to increase daily mass gains for feedlot cattle, the best way to measure their genetic
merit is to feed them to their full genetic potential in a feedlot.
Results of selection
Breeders are often faced with the fact that if selection for a trait is continued for
a long time, that trait reaches a level beyond which further improvement is limited and
slow. Geneticists say a selection plateau has been reached. The breeder need not
despair, because genetic variation continues to exist and variation is the joy (and the
despair!) of the breeder.
New technology
use in theft cases, where meat found on the possession of a suspcet can be linked to
skins or previously stored DNA samples.
Fertility
Birth weight
Weaning weight
Yearling weight
Calf birth weight : cow weight
Calf weaning weight : cow weight at weaning
Mature live mass
Draught ability
Heat tolerance
Characteristics of fat deposition
Eye muscle area
Cold carcass mass
Weight of hind quarter : weight of front quarter
Muscling and Dressing %
Bone
Conformation
Structural soundness
Breed standards
Temperament
Disease tolerance
Tick tolerance
Mothering ability
120
Structural soundness
Growth rate
Sumber :
http://agriculture.kzntl.gov.za/portal/AgricPublications/ProductionGuidelines/BeefProd
uction/BreedingandSelectionintheBeefHerd/tabid/108/Default.aspx