TOKSIKOLOGI KONTAMINAN UDARA

PERTEMUAN KE 10
MIRTA DWI RAHMAH, S.KM,. M.KKK.
PROGRAM STUDI KESEHATAN MASYARAKAT
KEMAMPUAN AKHIR YANG DIHARAPKAN
• Mahasiswa mampu memahami tentang kontaminan udara
dan sifat-sifatnya
• Mahasiswa mampu memahami toksikokinetika kontaminan
udara dan penanganannya
 ATMOSPHERE CONTAMINANT
o Kontaminan atmosfer à sekelompok bahan kimia yang ada
dalam campuran udara namun bersifat asing dalam kondisi
udara yang normal baik dari segi jenis maupun kuantitasnya.
o Berdasarkan proses pembentukannya, kontaminan di udara
dapat terbentuk secara alami dan karena aktivitas manusia.
Jenisnya dibagi 2:
a) Partikulat dan aerosol
Dust particulates
b) Gas dan uap (vapors)
 PARTIKULAT & AEROSOL
a) Partikulat à materi padatan atau cairan berukuran
mikroskopik yang berada di atmosfer bumi
b) Aerosol à sistem partikel yang melayang di media
gas seperti udara
o Aerosol padat à debu udara (airborne dust), serat (fiber),
asap (smoke), uap logam (fume) Spraying mist
o Aerosol cair à spray, mist, fog
Welding fumes
 GAS
o Keadaan materi di mana molekul secara arepraktik
tidak dibatasi oleh kekuatan kohesif. Agas tidak
memiliki bentuk maupun volume untuk penggunaan
kita. Ini adalah zat yang memiliki suhu kritis di
bawah 200C dan dengan demikian tidak dapat
terkondensasi menjadi bentuk cair pada tekanan
apa pun pada suhu ini.
 VAPOR
o Zat-zat yang tersebar di udara sebagai molekul
individu, di bawah suhu kritisnya dan ini dapat
dikondensasi menjadi cairan pada suhu 20oC
dengan meningkatkan tekanan. Uap memiliki
bentuk cetakan atau volume untuk penggunaan kita.
 AEROSOL
o Suspensi stabil atau kuasi-stabil dari partikel padat
atau cair dalam gas. Berbagai istilah digunakan
untuk mendefinisikan aerosol berdasarkan asalnya
atau statusnya yaitu: fume, dust, mist, fog, smoke,
haze, smog
 FUME
o Partikel padat terbentuk oleh kondensasi. Umumnya
digunakan untuk logam seperti Cd, Pb, Zn, dll.
 DUST
Partikel padat terbentuk selama proses disintegrasi
yang bersifat mekanis; penambangan, penggilingan,
(mis., debu batu bara), dll. Biasanya berdiameter di atas
1 μm dan heterogen, kurang stabil karena lebih besar
dan disolidasi.
 MIST
Mengacu pada partikel cair, dibentuk oleh
kondensasi uap (partikel kecil, homogen, stabil) atau
dengan atomisasi cairan (partikel lebih besar dan
lebih tidak stabil).
 FOG
Kabut yang lumayan mengurangi visibilitas
 SMOKE
o Partikel dalam suspensi di udara dihasilkan dari
pembakaran flaming atau pirolisis bahan organik
atau anorganik. Partikel-partikel dapat mengandung
padatan, cairan dan gas terlarut. Partikel-partikelnya
bisa sangat kecil atau sangat besar tergantung pada
berbagai kondisi.
 HAZE
Kombinasi uap, debu, asap, kabut atau asap yang sangat
mengurangi visibilitas. Kadang-kadang kabut digunakan sebagai
ganti kabut (misal kabut) untuk menggambarkan penurunan
visibilitas.
 TOKSISITAS KONTAMINAN UDARA
Faktor yang mempengaruhi keparahan dari terhirupnya
kontaminan udara:
• Ukuran kontaminan yang dihirup (untuk partikulat)
• Kelarutan (kemampuan untuk larut dalam cairan jaringan)
• Reaktivitas (kemampuan bereaksi dengan komponen jaringan)
• Kondisi pemaparan, seperti konsentrasi dan durasi
pemaparan
• Pertahanan paru-paru
• Latihan / keadaan istirahat
• Status imunologis
• Kadar air jaringan
 TOKSISITAS GAS DAN VAPOR
1 Asfiksia
o sesak napas sederhana
o Sesak napas kimia
2 Iritasi
o Kemampuan gas atau uap untuk menyebabkan gejala
iritasi lokal
3 Sensitisasi
o kemampuan gas atau uap menyebabkan respons
kekebalan
4 Toksisitas
 ASPHYXIANTS
Simple asphyxiants
• Carbon dioxide CO2
• Nitrogen N2
• Inert gases, such as He2, Ar2, Ne2
• Low molecular weight, straight chain hydrocarbons (C1 to C4)
including aliphatic compounds, such as Methane CH4, Ethane
CH3CH3, Ethene CH2CH2, Propane CH3CH2CH3, or Butane
CH3CH2CH2CH3

Chemical asphyxiants
• Carbon monoxide CO
• Cyanides (typically HCN)
• Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
 IRRITANTS
• Gases
● Ammonia (NH3)
● Chlorine (Cl2)
● Other halogen gases (F2, Br2 vapour)
– Fluorine
– Bromine
– Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
– Oxides of sulphur (SOx)
– Halogen acid gases
– Ozone
• Vapours
● Aldehydes
● Acid mists
● Caustic mists
• Irritant and toxic fumes
• Sensitisers
● Isocyanates
● Aldehydes
• Toxic gases
● Carbon disulphide
● Oxygen
 GASES & MISTS
Organ Systems Affected Examples

Respiratory system Irritants Chlorine (Cl2) , Ammonia (NH3) , Oxides of

nitrogen (NOx) , Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) , Fluorine (F2) , Phosphine
(PH3), Phosgene (CoCl2)
Ozone (O3) , Formaldehyde (CH2O), Acrolein
Corrosive Acid mists
Caustic mists
Asphyxiants Nitrogen (N2) , Hydrogen (H2) , Methane (CH4) ,
simple Helium, Argon, Neon, Ethylene (C2H4) , Ethane
(C2H6)
Asphyxiants Carbon monoxide, Hydrogen cyanide, Hydrogen
Chemical sulphide
Allergens Isocyanates
Central nervous system Carbon disulphide (CS2), Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Solvent vapours
Blood forming system Arsine

Carcinogens Vinyl chloride (C2H3Cl), Nickel carbonyl (NiCO)

Formaldehyde (CH2O)
 PARTICULATES
Dust and Particulates

Organic dusts Inorganic dusts

Naturally Non – Metallic

Occuring

Silica Containing

Free Silica

Plant Animal Synthetic Combined Chrystalline Amorphous Non – Metallic

Organics Silica Silica Silica Silica
Cotton Diatomaceous As
Talc Quartz Asbestos
Grain earth
Mn
Coal
Flour Pb
SIZE SELECTIVE COMPONENTS OF PARTICULATES

Total Dust

Non – Inspirable fraction Inspirable fraction

Nasopharyngeal Tracheobronchial Respirable

fraction fraction
fraction
 TOXICITY OF PARTICULATES
• Intrinsic kinetic energy from any forces that arose
during the process of particle generation (for
example, particles from a grinding wheel);
• Air movement at the source of particle generation
(such as air flow from ventilation systems);
• Diffusion;
• Air resistance; and
• Gravity.
Where do the particles lodge?

Inhalable-100µ

Thoracic - 10µ

Respirable - 4µ
 Relative size of particles

Respirable dust
RESPIRABLE
4 micron
Thoracic dust
THORACIC 10 micron
(PM10)

Inhalable dust
100 micron
INHALABL
E

1 4 7 10 30 100
 COMMON PARTICLE TOXICANTS
Particulate Sources Toxic Effects/Diseases
Asbestos Mining, manufacture of asbestos products, Asbestos, pleural plaques, lung cancer,
construction, ship, building mesothelioma
Aluminium Manufacture of aluminium products, ceramics, paints, aluminosis, alveolar oedema, interstitial fibrosis
dust and electrical goods, fireworks, abrasives
abrasives
Beryllium Mining and extraction, alloy manufacture, ceramics Berylliosis, pulmonary oedema, pneumonia,
granulomatosis, lung cancer, cor pulmonale
Cadmium Welding, manufacture of electrical goods, pigments Pneumonia, emphysema, cor pulmonale
(oxide)
Chromium Manufacture of CR compounds, pigment manufacture, Bronchitis, fibrosis, lung cancer
[VI] tanneries
Coal dust Coal mining Fibrosis, coal miners
Cotton dust Textile manufacture byssinosis
Iron oxides Hematite mining, iron and steel production, welding, Siderosis, diffuse fibrosis – like pneumoconiosis
foundry work
Kaolin Pottery manufacture Kaolinosis, fibrosis
 COMMON PARTICLE TOXICANTS
Particulate Sources Toxic Effects/Diseases

Manganese Alloy production, chemical industry Manganism, manganese pneumonia

Nickel Mining, production, electroplating Pulmonary eudema, lung cancer, nasal cavity
cancer
Silica Mining and quarrying, stone cutting, construction, sand Silicosis, fibrosis,silicotuberlosis
blasting
Talc Rubber industry, cosmetics Talcosis, fibrosis
Tantallum Manufacture and sharpening of cutting tools Hard metal disease, hyperplasia of bronchial
carbide epithelium, fibrosis
Tin Mining, tin production stanosis
Tungsten Manufacture and sharpening of cutting tools Hard metal disease, hyperplasia of bronchial
carbide epithelium, fibrosis
vanadium Steel manufacture Irritation, bronchitis
 Pathological Responses of The Respiratory
System to Inhaled Materials

Response Mechanism
Absorption Absorption of agents can have toxic effects, either in the lung, or elsewhere in the body.
Asphyxiation Either : by a reduction in the concentration of oxygen in inspired air by physical
displacement (simple asphyxiation); or by a reduction in oxygen transport in the body by
chemical reaction (chemical asphyxiation).
Local irritation Related to the solubility of the substance onto moist surfaces and mucous membranes of
nose, eyes, mouth, and upper respiratory tract.
Irritation of Irritation of the airways lead to the bronchoconstriction. More extensive and smaller
airways/bronchocons airway constriction occurs at exercise or exertion than at rest.
triction
Increase in the Increase in secretion of mucus will slow down cilary movement, and may block smaller
secretion of mucus airways.
Cell damage/oedema Damage to cellular components of airways and alveoli results in increased permeability,
loss of compliance, necrosis and intraluminal (within the airways) rather than interstitial
(within cells of the airways) oedema. Pulmonary oedema may, it turn, be compounded by
secondary infection.
Macrophage Alteration in function or destruction of alveolar macrophages will alter clearance
cytotoxicity processes, which can lead to collection of respired particles in a given area.
 Pathological Responses of The Respiratory
System to Inhaled Materials

Sensitisation and Dependent on immunological status and disposition to asthma.

allergy
Lung overload by When lung burdens of particulates are sufficient to exceed physiological clearance
particles mechanisms such as macrophage phagocytosis, lung burdens of such particulates will
persist, and completely non-physiological mechanism of disease pathogenesis may occur.
Emphysema Abnormal presence of air. In the lungs, emphysema is an overdistension of the alveoli,
and in parts, destruction of their walls, giving rise to the formation of large sacs from
rupture and running together of a number of contiguous air vesicles. Another form, acute
interstitial emphysema, is the infiltration of air beneath the pleura and between the
pulmonary air cells.
Granulomatous Granuloma is a new growth made up of granular cells, caused by chronic inflammation.
reactions
Fibrogenesis The growth of fibrous tissues, comprising fibres of collagen and elastin. Between these
cells lie star shapped cells or fibroblasts, from which collagen or elastin is formed. Elastin
has elastic properties, and is used in the walls of arteries, and so forth. Normally collagen
is grouped into bundles which are held together by other fibres, used to make ligaments,
tendons and sinews. It is also the substance laid down in the repair of wounds, or as a
result of collagen fibres in response to cellular inflammation and damage.
Cancer Oncogenesis leading to primary lung tumours.
 REFERENSI
Alarie, Y. Inhalation Toxicology and Toxic Responses of the Lung.
http://pitt.edu
Lestari, F. The Toxicology of Atmospheric Contaminants. Bahan Ajar Mata
Kuliah Toksikologi Industri. Program Studi Magister Keselamatan dan
Kesehatan Kerja, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, 2011
WHO, Hazard Prevention and Control in the Work Environment: Airborne
Dust, Chapter 1 – Dust: Definitions and Concepts