LINGKUNGAN

ADMINISTRASI PUBLIK

Irfan Ridwan Maksum

 PENDAHULUAN

Dalam kajian akademik, kajian mengenai

lingkungan biasa digunakan terminologi
“ekologi”

Lingkungan Administrasi (publik) membentuk

jalinan sistemik.

Tokoh ekologi Administrasi Publik/ Negara yang

diakui secara internasional adalah Fred W. Riggs.
 LANJUTAN

Menurut Webster Dictionary EKOLOGI adalah

the branch of biology that deals with relations
between living organisms and their
environment; in sociology, the relationship
between the distribution of human groups
with reference to material resources, and the
consequent social and cultural patterns
 HUMAN ECOLOGY

J.B. Bews dalam Human Ecology (1935) :

The word itself is derived from the Greek
oikos, as house or home, the same root word
as occurs in economy and economics.
Economics is a subject with which ecology
has much in common, but ecology is much
wider. It deals with all the relationships of
living organisms and their environment
 FRED W. RIGGS MEMBUAT
PENYEDERAHANAAN PEMETAAN
LINGKUNGAN ADMINISTRASI PUBLIK
DI USA DENGAN MODEL
GYROSCOPE DIMANA DI TENGAH-
TENGAH ADALAH SISTEM
ADMINISTRASI NEGARA (PUBLIK)
ITU SENDIRI YANG DIKELILINGI
OLEH SEJUMLAH SISTEM YANG
MEMPENGARUHI DAN SALING
PENGARUH DAN
BERKETERGANTUNGAN SATU SAMA
LAIN.
 FRED W. RIGGS (1917-2008)
 Professor Emeritus at political science Department of
University of Hawaii.
 One of the pioneers in Administrative Model.
 Well known for his works in Comparative Public
Administration.
 His theory finds lots of relevance in developing
countries.
FAKTOR-FAKTOR EKOLOOGIS

Fred W. Riggs di Equilibrium model (1961)

menyebut 5 faktor ekologis Administrasi Publik
AS
1. Economic foundations
2. Social structure
3. Communications network
4. Ideological/ Symbol patterns
5. Political system
 LANJUTAN

Lingkungan berpengaruh dalam model tersebut

terdiri dari (1) sistem politik; (2) pola-pola
idiologi/ simbol; (3) jaringan komunikasi; (4)
struktur sosial; (5) dasar-dasar ekonomi.
Satu saja berubah, maka yang lain akan berubah
pula secara terus menerus.
Riggs menyebutkan model tersebut sebagai
model keseimbangan.
 LANJUTAN

• Riggs berkata bahwa administrasi dipengaruhi oleh

lingkungannya, disamping administrasi publik juga mampu
mempengaruhi lingkungannya
• Jika kita hanya memandang hubungan pengaruh hanya satu
arah, maka kita memahami satu pendekatan ‘unidirectional’
• Menurut Riggs, hubungan tersebut bukan unidireksional
melainkan berpola timbal-balik secara simultan. Pandangan
seperti ini dikatakan sebagai pandangan resiprokal dan
transaksional.
• Agar administrasi publik mampu mempengaruhi
lingkungannya diperlukan pengembangan kebijakan,
perencanaan, program dan proyek untuk perubahan.
 LANJUTAN

• Faktor-faktor ini mempengaruhi secara timbal

balik suatu sistem administrasi negara, baik di
negara-negara agraria maupun negara industri.
• Ternyata karakter di Berbagai negara berbeda-
beda.
• Riggs membedakan antara negara Agraris dan
Negara Industrialis. Model Gryoscope tidak
begitu saja dapat digunakan secara sama di kedua
kelompok negara-negara tersebut.
BACKGROUND....
• Riggs criticizes “first generation” of
modernization theories, especially Rostow’s
stages of economic development that
most developing countries tried to follow in
the 60s and early 70s.
• Riggs began with a bipolar analytical
framework known as the so-called Agraria-
Industria model.
• Contextual distinction of public administration
between the traditional agrarian societies
and modern industrial nations.
• Riggs was searching for a more appropriate
model.
 LANJUTAN

• Oleh karena itu dikembangkan sub-sub

model dari model tersebut yang terdiri dari
sub-model imperial bureaucratic dan feudalistik
dalam model negara Agraria; dan sub-model
demokratik dan sub-model totalitarian dalam
model Negara industrial.
• Perubahan-perubahan antar sub-model dalam
sebuah negara dapat terjadi dengan catatan
pergerakan linear terjadi dari model negara
agraria ke model negara industrial dan tidak
sebaliknya.
 LANJUTAN

• Pergeseran linear tersebut dicapai melalui

proses modernisasi dengan pembangunan.
• Bersifat multidimensi.
• Pembangunan adalah proses perubahan yang
dipersiapkan (intended change),
perubahan terarah (directed change),
perubahan terencana (planned change).
• Dapat beraspek kualitatif maupun
kuantitatif.
 LANJUTAN

• Menurut Riggs, the modern man ditandai

oleh kemampuannya mempengaruhi
lingkungan.
• Demikian pula administrasi negara yang
modern harus mampu mempengaruhi
lingkungannya.
• Dilakukan secara terus menerus, terencana,
diperbaiki sepanjang waktu sehingga
berhubungan timbal-balik.
 LANJUTAN

Sulitnya mendapatkan realita bahwa beberapa

negara terdapat ciri-ciri yang tidak selalu ekstrim
antara model negara agraria (fused society) dan
model negara industri (refracted society),
kemudian Riggs mengembangkan model
masyarakat prismatik (prismatic society). Ciri-ciri
dari masyarakat seperti ini terjadi apa yang
disebut: (1) heterogenitas; (2) formalisme; dan (3)
overlapping.
PRISMATIC MODEL….
• Later he developed the prismatic model to
explain the administrative systems of
Developing World. He categorized societies into
three: 1-Fused 2-Prismatic 3-Diffracted

• He used Fused model to explain the ecology of

traditional societies.
• Prismatic society to explain the developing
world.
• Diffracted society to explain the developed
societies.
• According to him no societies is neither totally
fused nor diffracted.
PRISMATIC MODEL….
FUSED SOCIETY….

Heavily depend on agriculture; Economic system based

on Barter system.

King and officials nominated by the King carry out all

administrative, economic and other activities.

The conscious establishment of policies is negligible.

here is no distinct political or administrative structures.

The political system is neither democratic, nor autocratic.

DIFFRACTED SOCIETY….

• Highly differentiated.
• Highly developed specialized structures of work.
• Functions of the society are very specific.
• Level of integration is high.
• Pattern of behavior is characterized by norms of
universalism and achievements.
PRISMATIC SOCIETY….

In a prismatic Society, there exists characteristics of Fused

and diffracted Societies side by side.

No real structural differentiation

 CHARACTERISTICS OF
PRISMATIC SOCIETY….

It has got three characteristics:

1-Heterogeneity 2-Formalism
3-Overlapping
HETEROGENEITY….

• There exists modern features of society

side by side with traditional features.
• The people are not integrated but
divided on line of religion etc.
• Un equal level of development.
• Highly westernized and modern urban
sector co-exists with rural irrational
sector.
FORMALISM….

• Formalism is the deference between the

prescribed and the practiced.
• Level of formalism is dependent on the
nature of pressure for development. If
the pressure comes from outside Level of
formalism increases.
• In Formalistic situation, values and norms
may receive lip service but ignored in real
practice.
OVERLAPPING….

• Riggs discusses dimensions of culture,

economy, political, communicational and
symbolic developing world.
• The coexistence of modern and traditional
structures in these societies.
• In urban areas modern technology is used
while traditional methods are employed in
rural areas.
 LANJUTAN

• Kini pergerakan linear tidak diyakini lagi oleh

banyak pakar administrasi publik dengan
berkembangnya pemikiran serba sistem.
• Dengan multi-dimensi dan kompleksitas
tinggi dalam ranah global, perkembangan
masyarakat dapat non-linear menurut pakar
serba-sistem.
 WHAT IS A SYSTEM?
• A group of interacting, interrelated, and interdependent elements
forming a complex whole
• A configuration of parts connected and joined together by a web of
relationships
• The whole is different from, and greater than, the sum of its parts
 SYSTEMS THINKING

• A way of understanding reality that emphasizes the relationships among a

system’s parts, rather than the parts themselves.
• Concerned about interrelationships among parts and their relationship to
a functioning whole
• Sees underlying patterns and structures
 Traditional Analysis and
SYSTEM THINKING APPROACH
Traditional analysis
Traditional analysis focuses on
the separating the individual
pieces of what is being studied; in
fact, the word “analysis” actually
comes from the root meaning “to
break into constituent parts.
Systems thinking
Systems thinking, in contrast,
focuses on how the thing being
studied interacts with the other
constituents of the system—a set
of elements that interact to
produce behavior—of which it is a
part.
 BINTORO
MENYEDERHANAKAN
MODEL SISTEM
ADMINISTRASI NEGARA
DENGAN MENGATAKAN
PERLUNYA
MEMPERTIMBANGKAN 5
ASPEK PENTING DALAM
ADMINISTRASI NEGARA.
 LIMA ASPEK
YANG SALING BERPENGARUH
DALAM ADMINISTRASI NEGARA

1. ASPEK POLITIK
3. ASPEK SOSIAL
BUDAYA

5. ASPEK INSTITUSI

4. ASPEK
PERKEMBANGAN ILMU
2. ASPEK EkONOMI DAN TEKNOLOGI.
SYAFRITZ MENYEDERAHANAKAN
PEMAHAMAN LINGKUNGAN
ADMINISTRASI PUBLIK DENGAN
MENGANGKAT FAKTOR
LINGKUNGAN ‘POLITIK DAN
BUDAYA’
 POWER
EXTERNAL PERSPECTIVE

• Pluralism
• Separation of Powers
• Power Shifts among competitive groups
• Cultural dimension

• Group Theory
 POWER
INTERNAL PERSPECTIVE

• Organizational Goals
• Internal Power Relationships
 THE POLITIC AL & CULTURAL
ENVIRONMENT OF PUBLIC POLICY
& ITS ADMINISTRATION

• THE CULTURES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

• The Outside cultural environment

• The Inside cultural environment
 “PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION CAN NOT
EXIST IN A POLICY VACUUM. IT MUST
HAVE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES
THAT ARE DIRECTED BY LEADERS WHO
WISH TO DO SOMETHING –IF ONLY TO
MAINTAIN THE STATUS QUO. THUS ALL
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS
INHERENTLY AN INSTRUMENT OF
POLICY –WHETHER THAT INSTRUMENT
PLAYS WELL, POORLY, OR NOT AT ALL.
 ADA DUA PERSPEKTIF DALAM MEMAHAMI
LINGKUNGAN POLITIK KEBIJAKAN DAN
ADMINISTRASI PUBLIK:

1. PERSPEKTIF KEKUASAAN EKSTERNAL

PLURALISM
DALAM PENGAMBILAN KEBIJAKAN, TERDAPAT
BANYAK KELOMPOK KEPENTINGAN.
PERSPEKTIF INI MENGAKUI ADANYA
PERSAMAAN KEKUATAAN DARI BERBAGAI
KELOMPOK TERSEBUT, SEHINGGA TIDAK ADA
SATUPUN KELOMPOK YANG MENDOMINASI
DALAM PROSES PENGAMBILAN KEBIJAKAN.
 LANJUTAN

• Teori Kelompok
Terdapat kelompok elite yang menguasai
pengambilan kebijakan. Teori ini juga
mengakui bahwa elite-elite tersebut dapat
membentuk menjadi satu kelompok
kekuatan sehingga pada dasarnya dalam
satu masyarakat terdapat kelompok yang
berkuasa atas satu kebijakan, dan yang
tidak berkuasa atas satu kebijakan.
 1. PER SPEKT IF KEKU ASAAN IN T ER N AL

T U J U A N -TUJ UA N OR GAN ISA SION AL

“ T H E T R AD IT ION AL ( C O NVEN T ION AL --

R EAD ER ) T H IN KIN G IS T H AT O R G AN IZAT ION S
AR E IN ST IT U T IONS W H O SE PR IM ARY
PU R PO SE IS TO AC C O M PL ISH ESTABL ISH
G O AL S. T H O SE G O AL S AR E SET BY PEO PL E IN
PO SIT IO NS O F F O R M AL AU T H O R ITY. T H U S
T H E PR IM ARY Q U E S T IO N F O R O R G A N IZ ATION
MAN AG ER S IS H O W BEST TO D ESIG N AN D
M AN AG E O R G A N IZAT ION S TO A C H IE V E T H E IR
D EC L AR ED PU R PO SE EF F EC T IVELY AN D
EFFIC IEN TLY.”
 LANJUTAN

• Hubungan Kekuasaan intern

“Power relationships are permanent
features of organizations primarily because
specialization result in the creation of many
interdependent units with varying sizes and
degrees of importance who compete with
each other for scarce resource.”
 B U D AYA K EB IJ A K A N D A N A D M IN IS T R AS I
PU B L IK PU N A D A D U A SU M B ER U TA M A :

1. L IN G K U NGA N B U D AYA L U A R

“ T H E D ET ER M IN A NT O F A N Y C O M M UN IT Y’S
AT T IT U D ES TO WAR D T H E Q U A L IT Y A N D V IG O R
O F IT S G O VER N IN G IN ST IT U T IONS IS T H E
PO L IT IC AL C U LTU R E OF TH E GEOGR APH IC
A R EA C O N C E R NE D . P O L IT IC A L C U LT U R E IS
T H AT PA R T O F T H E O VER A L L SO C IETA L
C U LT U R E D ET ER M IN E A C O M M U NITY’S
AT T IT U D ES TO WAR D T H E Q U A L IT Y, ST YL E,
A N D VIG O R O F ITS PO LITIC A L PR O C ESS A N D
G O VER N MEN T O PER AT IONS.”
 2 . L IN G K U NGA N B U D AYA IN T ER N

“ A N O R G A N IZ AT ION AL C U LT U R E – T H E
C U LT U R E W H IC H EXISTS W ITH IN A N
O R G A NIZATION — IS A PA R A L L EL B U T
SMA L L ER VER SIO N O F A SO C IETA L C U LT U R E.
IT IS MA D E U P O F IN TA N GIBL E T H IN G S SU C H
A S VA L U ES , B E L IE F S , A S S U M P T ION S , A N D
PER C EPT IO N S. IT IS TH E PATTER N OF TH ESE
B EL IEF S A N D AT T IT U D ES T H AT D ET ER M IN ES
M EM B ER S B E H AV IO R S IN A N D A R O U N D T H E
O R G A NIZATION, PER SIST S O VER EXT EN D ED
PER IO D S O F T IM E, A N D PERVA D ES A L L
EL EMEN T S O F T H E O R G A NIZ ATIONS ( A L B EIT
TO D IF F ER EN T EXTEN TS A N D W ITH VA RYIN G
IN T E N S IT Y ) .”
 HEADY DAN NIGRO

John M. Gaus di Ferrel Heady mengenalkan 6 faktor

ekologis di Sistem Administrasi Philipina
‘These six factors are people, place, physical
technology, social technology, wishes and ideas,
catastrope, and personality.’
Felix A. Negro ‘the outstanding characteristics of
American Society today, and how do they affect
public administration.’
Population changes, advances in physical
technology, advances in social inventions, and
ideological environment
S. PAMUDJI MELIHAT LINGKUNGAN
HIDUP DARI SISTEM ADMINISTRASI
NEGARA INDONESIA

1. Faktor2 alamiah: letak geografis,

keadaan dan kekayaan alam, keadaan
dan kemampuan penduduk
2. Faktor2 sosial: ideologi, politik,
ekonomi, sosial budaya, dan pertahanan
keamanan (militer)
 SISTEM ADMINISTRASI PUBLIK

Lingkungan 1. Lokasi dan posisi

Pisi geografis Lingkungan
(Environment) Tri
k 2. Keadaan/kekayaan alam (Environment)
3. Kemampuan Penduduk Gatra
Masukan Proses konversi Luaran
(Input) (Conversion) (Output)
1 Tuntutan2
Unit administratif Barang2 dan jasa2
/keinginan2
1. Struktur (pelayanan) bagi
2. Sumber2 dana
2. Prosedur pengambilan pemenuhan
dan daya
keputusan kebutuhan
3. Dukungan atau
3. Pengalaman dan masyarakat dan
tantangan dari
keadaan pribadi pegawai/pejabat
masyarakat dan
administrator cabang
pejabat2
4. Prosedur kontrol pemerintahan
cabang
pemerintahan Menggambarkan pengaruh
lainnya
yang lain Umpan luaran thd lingikungan dan
dapat menjadi masukan
Balik baru
1. Ideologi
Lingkungan 2. Politik
3. Ekonomi Lingkungan
(Environment) Sosia Panca
4. Sosial Budaya (Environment)
l 5. Hankam
Gatra
 SYSTEM BOUNDARIES

• Shows what is inside and outside of the system

• Geographical (location)
• Organization (department, unit or function)
• Physical (money, material, information)
• Conceptual (goals, mission, purpose, rules)
• Intangibles (perceptions, awareness, models)
• Natural or man-made
 SYSTEM RELATIONSHIPS
(INTERCONNECTIONS)

• Connections and exchanges among system parts, parts and the whole, and
the whole and its environment
• Flows of information
• Flows of funding
• Client referrals
• Collaborative partnerships
• Family, community, and social networks
 SYSTEM PERSPECTIVES

• Stakeholders’ worldviews and purposes

• System agents who have different perspectives may pursue different
purposes within a given situation
• Patterns of (mis)alignment of purposes and processes within and
across system levels
 SYSTEM CHANGE

• System differences generate creative tension or energy within a

system
• Positive or negative, energy provides potential for system change
• System change: shifts in patterns (similarities and differences) of
system relationships, boundaries, focus, timing, events and
behaviors over time and space
 SYSTEM DYNAMICS

• Random (unorganized)
• Organized (simple or complicated)
• Adaptive (organic, self-organizing)
• All three system dynamics can be present in a complex situation
 Systems Thinking
Learning to see the world systemically
Encourages us to see the whole as well as the parts.

WHOLE   PARTS
 Holistic Thinking

!!!

?? ??
Multiple (often)
restricted views
 SYSTEMS THINKING…
Helps us explore interdependencies and looking for patterns.

Max Barret Webecoist.com

 SYSTEMS THINKING…

Helps us understand feedback structures that

change systems over time.

River Fractal - Héctor Garrido

 SYSTEMS THINKING…
Helps us understand results of our decisions…
 DAMPAK PERBEDAAN
LINGKUNGAN

• Antar-negara terdapat perbedaan lingkungan.

• Hasilnya akan membawa pada perbedaan
karakter dinamika administrasi publiknya
dalam melakukan manajemen kebijakan
publiknya.
• Faktor budaya, idiologi, sikap-mental bangsa
dan kapasitas manusia menjadi faktor penting
di sini.